The purpose of this study was to provide a new framework of team leadership in sport. More specifically, the aim was to examine a functional leadership paradigm in sport where full range of leadership behaviors by the coach and by the collective athletes influence team cohesion, and thereby increase the likelihood of team goal achievement. Data were utilized from 518 NCAA Division I-III athletes from 36 softball teams and 13 baseball teams. The participants completed the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio & Bass, 2004), the Team Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio & Bass, 1996), the Group Environment Questionnaire (Carron, Brawley, & Widmeyer, 1985), and the Team Outcome Questionnaire that was created for this study. Structural equation modeling was used to assess the relationships among the variables in the model. The results indicated that the original hypothesized model did not fit the data, but an acceptable alternative model was found which included transformational leadership and two transactional leadership variables as three separate leadership styles influencing perceptions of cohesion. It was discovered that transformational leadership had a significant positive effect on cohesion, which in turn appeared to have a significant positive effect on goal achievement. The author discusses a potentially fruitful direction in the examination of team leadership, within which the first step would involve a closer examination of measurement of coach leadership, team leadership, and cohesion. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 12, 2012. / Baseball, Leadership, Softball, Teams, Transformational / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeffrey James, University Representative; Robert Eklund, Committee Member; David Eccles, Committee Member; Yanyun Yang, Committee Member.

This study focused on developing and examining an effect-size index for evaluation of model-data fit in structural equation modeling. Based on MacCallum and his colleagues' work (1996, 2006), the discrepancy function under maximum likelihood estimation was defined as an effect-size index. The formulas for computing the expected value and variance of this index were derived for both correctly specified and mis-specified models. A simulation study was conducted to examine the performance and distributional characteristics of the index under various degrees of freedom, sample sizes, and degrees of model misspecification. The results showed that the fit function in the sample is a function of sample sizes, degrees of freedom, and degree of model misspecification. The observed sample means tended to be biased when the sample size was small. The distribution of the fit function was very similar to the chi-square distribution. It was also demonstrated that power of detecting mis-specified models was a function of the sample sizes, degrees of freedom, and degree of model misspecification. In addition, it was suggested that meta-analysis across studies can be conducted using the fit function as an effect-size index for certain models. / A Thesis submitted to the Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 28, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references. / Yanyun Yang, Professor Directing Thesis; Betsy Becker, Committee Member; Russell Almond, Committee Member.

Several studies have found that the juvenile offender population has higher rates of experiencing traumatic events that the general population of adolescents. It is approximated that 50% - 80% of adolescents involved with the juvenile justice system have experienced at least one traumatic event (Garbarino, 2001). Across disciplines, researchers generally agree that the risk of involvement with the juvenile justice system increases when a youth experiences a traumatic event (Maschi, 2006). The types of trauma experienced and reactions to trauma vary by gender, which requires examination. Little information is currently available in the literature regarding gender-specific treatment for trauma with the juvenile offender population, especially for males. The present study examined the relationship between clinically significant symptoms related to trauma, as measured by the Trauma Symptom Checklist For Children (TSCC), and gender in a sample of male and female juvenile offenders. This study also examined the relationship between gender and the decision to refer juvenile offenders for trauma-specific mental health treatment. This study included 250 participants, aged 13 - 16 years, with documented histories of experiencing at least one traumatic event, and valid profiles on the TSCC, as judged by the validity scales of the measure. This study utilized archival data and included exclusively a probation sample of youth. The sample was gathered from the Metrowest area of Massachusetts. The results indicate that female juvenile offenders are more likely to produce higher elevations on the Depression and Sexual Concerns scales of the TSCC, while male juvenile offenders are more likely to produce higher scores on the Anger scale. No significant differences were found by gender on the Anxiety, Dissociation or PTSD scales. Further, a Logistic Regression revealed that female juvenile offenders are more likely than males to be referred for trauma-related mental health treatment regardless of if they exhibit clinically significant trauma-related symptoms or not. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Fall Semester, 2011. / October 31, 2011. / Gender, Juvenile Offenders, Trauma, Treatment Referrals / Includes bibliographical references. / Georgios Lampropoulos, Professor Directing Dissertation; Daniel Mears, University Representative; James P. Sampson, Jr., Committee Member; Steven I. Pfeiffer, Committee Member.

While there has been research on the integration of mental health and career counseling, there has been little that has looked at both areas in relation to depression and hopelessness. There is literature linking depression and dysfunctional career thinking (Saunders et al., 2000), and there is also literature linking depression and hopelessness to risk for suicide and suicidal behavior (Beck et al., 1990). This study investigated the relationship among dysfunctional career thinking, depression, and hopelessness. Participants included 147 undergraduate and graduate students seeking drop-in or individual career counseling services at a university career center. The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) was used to measure dysfunctional career thoughts, the Beck Depression Inventory - II (BDI-II) was used to measure depression, and the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) was used to measure hopelessness. Pearson correlations were utilized to determine correlations among the variables. One stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the amount of variance of depression that was accounted for by dysfunctional career thinking. A second stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the amount of variance of hopelessness that was accounted for by dysfunctional career thinking. Two aspects of dysfunctional career thinking, Decision-Making Confusion (DMC) and Commitment Anxiety (CA), were found to account for a significant amount of variance in depression. One aspect of dysfunctional career thinking, Decision-Making Confusion (DMC), was found to account for a significant amount of variance in hopelessness. The potential intervening variables of gender, age, and minority status failed to yield significant increases in variation for BDI-II scores and for BHS in both stepwise regression models. Additionally, a cut score for the BDI-II was used in regression equations to determine what T-scores on DMC and CA would predict that cut score. Similarly, a cut score for the BHS was used in a regression equation to determine what T-score on DMC would predict that cut score. Results of this study indicate that there is a positive relationship among all indicators of dysfunctional career thinking, depression, and hopelessness. Also, some aspects of dysfunctional career thinking can be used to predict depression and hopelessness in undergraduate and graduate students seeking career services. Findings suggest that using the CTI total score, CTI raw scores, and including other instruments in the prediction model may help improve the understanding of the relationship among dysfunctional career thoughts, depression, and hopelessness. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2012. / March 14, 2012. / Beck, Career counseling, Career Thoughts Inventory, Depression, Dysfunctional career thinking, Hopelessness / Includes bibliographical references. / Janet G. Lenz, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lenore M. McWey, University Representative; James P. Sampson, Jr., Committee Member; Georgios Lampropoulos, Committee Member.

The purposes of this study were to examine the links between self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and the dualistic model of passion (Vallerand, 2008) and to examine the coping strategies used by triathletes differentiated by motivation and passion type. Additionally the differences between triathletes with sustained involvement in Ironman distance triathlons and those with little or no Ironman distance experience were also compared. Triathletes (n = 299) completed several measures assessing passion, motivation, leisure time exercise, coping strategies, and goal attainment via two online surveys. Structural equation modeling (SEM) methods were employed to test several models involving situational motivation (Lonsdale et al., 2008) and coping strategies (CICS; Gaudreau and Blondin, 2002) as mediators between passion and goal attainment and potential future triathlon event participation. Results revealed that the original full structural model did not fit to the data well but one with parceled indicators fit reasonable well to the data. Examination of the path coefficients, however, indicated that motivation and coping were mediators between passion and goal attainment but not future triathlon intentions. Harmonious passion was a strong predictor of situational autonomous motivation and coping was a moderately strong mediator between motivation and goal attainment. Future intentions to run triathlon events were better predicted by direct paths from autonomous motivation and obsessive passion. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Education Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 19, 2012. / coping, motivation, passion, sport, triathlon / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert Eklund, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lynn Panton, University Representative; Gershon Tenenbaum, Committee Member; David Eccles, Committee Member.

Despite its impact on the adult population, there has not been significant research related to the treatment of ADHD in adults. A relatively new treatment method, ADHD coaching, employs the principles of traditional coaching to address the daily challenges of living with ADHD. This study examines the methods and practices of ADHD interventions utilized by non-psychologist ADHD coaches and psychologists. An ADHD coaching survey was developed to obtain data regarding basic practices and differences in intervention methods of ADHD coaches and psychologists and the relationship between the use of between -session assignments and perceived client outcome. Results revealed that significant differences exist between ADHD coaches and psychologists in the mode of treatment, specific goals utilized, and specific interventions used. The components of frequency, quantity, quality and perceived value of between-session assignments all significantly predicted client goal mastery in ADHD coaching. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / April 25, 2012. / ADHD, ADHD COACHING / Includes bibliographical references. / Georgios Lampropoulos, Professor Directing Dissertation; Martell Teasley, University Representative; Frances Prevatt, Committee Member; James P. Sampson, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of factors affecting adjustment to athletic retirement (i.e., athletic identity and perceived voluntariness of retirement) on physical activity behaviors in former high school athletes during the freshmen year of college. In previous research, athletes with high athletic identities whose retirement was involuntary were most likely to experience adjustment difficulties upon athletic retirement (Grove, Lavallee & Gordon, 1997). In this study, 49 voluntarily retired athletes, 29 involuntarily retired athletes and 50 non-athletes completed current and retrospective versions of the Physical Activity Index (PAI; Telama, Yang, Viikari, Välimäki, Wane & Raitakari, 2005), a retrospective version of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS; Brewer, Van Raalte & Linder, 1993) and, for former athletes only, a question regarding perceived voluntariness of retirement. For all participants, physical activity levels declined from high school to college. For athletes, there were no differences in physical activity change regardless of athletic identity (high vs. low) or voluntariness of retirement (voluntary vs. involuntary). Furthermore, the interaction of athletic identity with voluntariness of retirement was not predictive of current physical activity levels. No gender effects were observed. Overall, the results provide little support for the notion that continued physical activity reflects successful adjustment to athletic retirement. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester 2012. / March 27, 2012. / Athletic identity, Athletic retirement, Former high school athletes, Physical activity, Transition, Voluntariness / Includes bibliographical references. / David Eccles, Professor Directing Thesis; Robert Eklund, Committee Member; Lynn Panton, Committee Member.

The aim of this study was to further validate the Academic Success Inventory for College Students (ASICS; Prevatt et al., 2011). There is a wide range of theoretical approaches related to academic success and there are several different assessments, including traditional measures (e.g. SAT, ACT, high school GPA) and nontraditional measures (e.g. LASSI, MSLQ, AMS, etc.). However, there is a lack of sound, comprehensive instrumentation in the academic success literature. The ASICS (Prevatt et al., 2011) is a newly designed comprehensive, 50-item survey that is based on notable theories of academic success and empirical evidence. Research on the ASICS has already demonstrated sound psychometric properties in its early stages of development (Prevatt et al., 2011). The present study implored a Logistic Graded Response Model, which is a unidimensional IRT analysis, on each of the ASIC subscales. Based on Logistic Graded Response Model results, none of the items fit the expected or hypothesized model, which may be due to the lack of appropriate software. However, many of the items had appropriate item endorsement and discrimination, which provided information on what contributes to the ten factors measured by the ASICS. Even though it is in its early stages of development, the ASICS continues to have strong psychometric properties and is a sound measure of academic success. Many universities and colleges would benefit from utilizing the ASICS to help increase the academic performance and graduation rates of its students. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2012. / February 22, 2012. / Academic Success, College Performance, IRT, Scale Development, Validation / Includes bibliographical references. / Frances Prevatt, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lee Stepina, University Representative; James Sampson, Committee Member; Jeannine Turner, Committee Member.

In this study, the author explored the grade retention beliefs of elementary teachers and how those beliefs affect teachers' intentions to retain at-risk students. Secondly, the author explored the congruence between teachers' beliefs to retain and grade retention decision-making teams' (GRDMT) ultimate retention decisions. Each year, over 2.5 million students are retained annually in the American public education system at a total cost of more than $14 billion per year. It is estimated that between 30% and 50% of students will repeat a grade at least once by the time they reach the ninth grade. In prior decades, teachers and principals were primarily responsible for making the decision to retain. However, in the age of accountability and high standards, GRDMTs have been created and are used in over two-thirds of retention decisions. Teachers are always present at the GRDMT decisions and may be just as influential in the decision-making process as in earlier decades when the decision was up to only the teacher and principal. Researchers have frequently argued that grade retention is not in accordance with the No Child Left Behind Act and the majority of published literature finds it to be an ineffective intervention. In the elementary setting, grade retention produces positive short-term outcomes, which substantiate teachers' beliefs that grade retention is helpful to students. In fact, 98% of teachers believe strongly in retaining struggling students, a belief that has remained relatively static over the past 30 years. However, the long-term outcomes are often detrimental to struggling students. The question remains as to why schools continue to retain an estimated 2.5 million students per year when grade retention, which is not federally regulated, is (a) ineffective, (b) increases additional financial burden for school districts, and (c) increases the likelihood that the student will drop out, exhibit socio-emotional difficulties, and have poorer employment outcomes. An exploration into teachers' belief systems and how often those belief systems are congruent with team decisions is needed to understand if, and to what extent, teachers influence the GRDMT process. Understanding the relationship between teachers' beliefs and team decisions will shed light on the practice of grade retention. The following research questions were identified for this study: 1. Utilizing the Theory of Planned Behavior, what are the current beliefs of elementary school teachers regarding grade retention? 2. Of those teachers who referred at-risk students to the GRDMT, how often were the teachers' beliefs about retaining at-risk students congruent with the teams' ultimate decisions to retain? To answer these questions, data were analyzed from 404 public elementary school teachers. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) provided the conceptual framework to study teachers' beliefs. Participants completed the Teacher Belief Questionnaire (TBQ) to measure teachers' beliefs (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control [PBC], and intentions) and GRDMT ultimate retention decisions. Structural equation modeling was used to test the first research question. Results indicate that teachers' attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC significantly predicted and accounted for 72% of the explained variance in teachers' intentions to retain students who are academically struggling or lack basic skills. To examine the second research question, binary logistic regression was used to examine the congruence between teachers' beliefs and GRDMT decisions in a sample of 306 teachers. Results indicate that teachers' beliefs were not congruent with GRDMT decisions, and did not significantly predict GRDMT decisions to retain or promote struggling students. Regardless of the strength of teachers' beliefs to retain, the majority of GRDMT chose to retain 75% of the time. The majority of students in jeopardy of retention were minority males who exhibited academic difficulties. Additional findings suggest that the GRDMT group memberships, decisions, policies, and alternatives used in lieu of grade retention varied greatly. Other factors or persons may be just as or more influential than teacher influence on group decisions. A discussion of the findings, limitations of the study, and implications for research are presented. Recommendations for future research are also presented, as the results of this exploratory study are limited in their scope of generalizability. Further research in the areas of teachers' beliefs and the GRDMT can further extant literature, as teachers' beliefs and GRDMT are here to stay and will continue to permeate the educational landscape. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2012. / June 11, 2012. / belief systems, elementary teachers, grade retention, group decision-making, intentions, structural equation modeling / Includes bibliographical references. / Briley E. Proctor, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Janet G. Lenz, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Sandra Lewis, University Representative; Bradley Cox, Committee Member; Angel I. Canto, Committee Member.

Computer-based simulations are commonly used to train students when it is exceptionally expensive or very unsafe to practice the skill in the actual situation. Despite the promise of simulative environments, there is an inadequacy in the learning and retention of learned concepts. This study examined the effects of variability of practice provided via contextual interference and cognitive flexibility on learner's learning and retention of the knowledge in the simulative environment. To study the effects in this context, two different types of interference conditions were presented to the learners; block interference and random interference. Both the block and random contextual interference groups troubleshoot 8 defects in a chemical simulation, PC Distiller, an alcohol water distillery. For the block interference, all the four sets of one component were performed before the faults on second component sets were introduced, while random orders of the tasks were used in the random interference. Forty nine freshman engineering students participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to the interference conditions: block and random. Participants were also required to complete a cognitive flexibility test to measure the shift of attention, and were measured via Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The results showed a significant difference in the learning performance and retention performance of the random interference group. Although, learners in the random interference group scored higher in the retention task, there was no significant difference between the two interference groups on learning and retention. Cognitive flexibility was also found to be having little predictive power of the outcome variable, learning performance and retention performance. However time spent by the learners in troubleshooting a task had a significant main effect on the learning performance and retention of knowledge. Time on task was negatively related to the scores in the learning performance and retention. Learners from both the block and random interference groups, who took less time to solve the problems scored better. The findings of this study have several implications for further research. Future studies might focus on learners experience and prior knowledge and use a sample for comparing the experts with the novice learners. In order to raise and produce better results on the learning tasks any information on participant's motivation could help in situating the learning task in the simulated environment. One key implication for instruction is the usefulness of the random interference condition in improving retention of knowledge which is also supported by the literature. Research considering these implications will provide educators to optimally use the simulative technology in learning and instruction. The limitations of the study focus on the time and financial constraints, type of instructional material and learner's motivation. These factors should be considered by other researchers in this field who wish to improve learning in the simulated environment. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2015. / July 13, 2015. / Cognitive Flexibility, Contextual Interference, Performance, Retention / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubteen Darabi, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jonathan Adams, University Representative; James Klein, Committee Member; Insu Paek, Committee Member.