<p> Educational reform is at the forefront of legislatures and school districts across the United States (Hattie, 2011). To find and employ high school improvement initiatives that lead to improved educational experiences for students, educational leaders must examine in great detail what systems have been successful and then modify the initiatives to fit the characteristics of their particular school districts (Berliner &amp; Glass, 2015). The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of initiatives one Midwestern high school implemented beginning in 2012. The initiatives implemented included the Tardy Sweep policy, Response to Intervention (RtI) program, and a Late Work policy. The data collected were archival and reflected the school years from 2010-2011 through 2015-2016. Using descriptive statistics, the findings demonstrated an improved attendance rate, a decline in discipline referrals, and decreased failure rate with the implementation of these initiatives at one Midwestern high school. The findings of this study provide a compelling argument for the implementation of the three initiatives at other high schools.</p><p>

The primary purpose of this study is to compare the six models (cross-sectional, two-wave, and multiwave, with and without controls) and determine which of the models most appropriately estimates school effects. For a fair and adequate evaluation of school effects, this study considers the following requirements of an appropriate analytical model. First, a model should have controls for students' background characteristics. Without controlling for the initial differences of students, one may not analyze the between-school differences appropriately, as students are not randomly assigned to schools. Second, a model should explicitly address individual change and growth rather than status, because students' learning and growth is the primary goal of schooling. In other words, studies should be longitudinal rather than cross-sectional. Most researches, however, have employed cross-sectional models because empirical methods of measuring change have been considered inappropriate and invalid. This study argues that the discussions about measuring change have been unjustifiably restricted to the two-wave model. It supports the idea of a more recent longitudinal approach to the measurement of change. That is, one can estimate the individual growth more accurately using multiwave data. Third, a model should accommodate the hierarchical characteristics of school data because schooling is a multilevel process. This study employs an Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) as a basic methodological tool to analyze the data. The subjects of the study were 648 elementary students in 26 schools. The scores on three subtests of Canadian Tests of Basic Skills (CTBS) were collected for this grade cohort across three years (grades 5, 6 and 7). The between-school differences were analyzed using the six models previously mentioned. Students' general cognitive ability (CCAT) and gender were employed as the controls for background characteristics. Schools differed significantly in their average levels of academic achievement at grade 7 across the three subtests of CTBS. Schools also differed significantly in their average rates of growth in mathematics and reading between grades 5 and 7. One interesting finding was that the bias of the unadjusted model against adjusted model for the multiwave design was not as large as that for the cross-sectional design. Because the multiwave model deals with student growth explicitly and growth can be reliably estimated for some subject areas, even without controls for student intake, this study concluded that the multiwave models are a better design to estimate school effects. This study also discusses some practical implications and makes suggestions for further studies of school effects. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

This research explores the effect of violations of the IRT local independence assumption. The assumption states that, conditional on ability, the responses of test takers to the items on a test are statistically independent. While this assumption is critical for the application of IRT to test data, it is such a strict requirement that it is unlikely to be met completely by any test. This research examines the extent to which the local independence assumption is violated in specific testing situations, and uses this information to determine the effect various levels of dependence have on IRT-based outcomes. Three tests, the LSAT, P-ACT+, and GMAT, were studied using the Q$\sb3$ statistic to evaluate the degree to which the local independence assumption is violated in practice. Each test examined violated the assumption to some degree. As expected, there was more dependence within test sections F than between test sections, and sections with item sets displayed more dependence than those without item sets. Within test sections, more dependence was displayed within item sets than between item sets. Based on these results, four dependence levels (zero, low, medium and high) were defined, and data were simulated to recover these dependencies. The simulated data were then compared to the true data to analyze the effect of these dependencies on calibration results and score distributions. The results indicated that high levels of dependency cause low scores to be underestimated and high scores to be overestimated. The expected effects of this result were observed for the item parameters, ability parameters and item and test characteristic curves. In terms of the score distribution, a normally distributed population of scores is spread out at the tails and flattened in the center as a result of a greater number of low and high scores. For the most part, the effects observed were not problematic for low to medium levels of dependence. These results have implications for many IRT applications, such as test assembly, equating, differential item functioning, and computer adaptive testing.

This study used a case study methodology to describe the implementation of authentic assessment procedures by a bilingual speech-language pathologist in an urban school system over the course of one school year. The goal was to examine the evolution in assessment practices as a consequence of the researcher's involvement in the process of educational change. The specific purposes of the study were to: (1) identify how authentic assessment procedures could be used to determine the language of instruction in bilingual students with communicative disorders, (2) identify how authentic assessment techniques could be utilized to document progress in the attainment of speech-language therapy goals as outlined in students' Individual Educational Program (IEP), and (3) identify how authentic assessments could be used to supplement standardized assessment procedures for the differentiation of language differences from language disorders. The initial research strategy involved the collection of authentic assessment data from 65 students in preschool through grade six who received speech-language services or had been referred for an initial evaluation. With the exception of students who had been referred for initial evaluations, authentic assessment procedures were integrated into the delivery of speech and language services. Although the assessment protocol varied depending on the needs of the student, the authentic assessment procedures included: communicative/literacy portfolios, miscue analyses, running records, narrative samples, interviews, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, therapy logs, and acculturation scales. Field notes and reflections on the process of the data collection were completed several times weekly. Interviews were conducted with 10 parents, 15 teachers, and 13 students about their perspectives on the use of authentic assessment procedures. The purpose of these interviews was to adapt and/or modify the ways in which authentic assessment techniques were used with students with communicative disorders. The three research questions were answered through the inductive analysis of the data drawn from the field notes, reflections, and interviews. The data were analyzed using the constant comparison method. This study found that a multifaceted approach to communicative assessment that combined standardized measures and authentic assessment techniques facilitated in the differentiation of language disorders from language differences. This comprehensive approach to assessment complied with the mandates of the Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1997 (IDEA-97), decreased the likelihood of assessment bias, and identified specific learning strategies and classroom accommodations that enhanced students' ability to access the regular education curriculum. The implementation of a dual language, multidimensional and curriculum-based assessment model helped to determine the language of instruction in bilingual students with communication disorders. Authentic assessment techniques were found to be an ideal means for documenting students progress in attaining specific curriculum-based communication goals as required by IDEA-97. The inclusion of authentic curriculum-based assessments and interventions is no longer an option for speech-language pathologists, but i s a requirement of IDEA-97. These mandates have exerted a major impact on school-based speech-language pathologists who are seeking a balanced approach to their changing role as evaluators and interventionists. Speech-language pathologists will need to explore both collectively and individually, how they as clinicians can contribute to the success of communicatively challenged students in the general education curriculum.

Currently, students in Massachusetts are under pressure to pass Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) testing in order to advance to the next grade or to receive a graduation diploma. The major purpose of this research is to determine upper elementary teachers' perceptions regarding the usefulness of Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) testing for improving the learning of third, fourth, and fifth grade public school students. Specifically, the research questions that guide this study are: (1) To what extent do upper elementary teachers perceive the WAS test inclusive of important learning being taught in their classroom? (2) To what extent do upper elementary teachers think WAS testing contributes to improvements in student learning? (3) What do upper elementary teachers report to be the positive and negative impacts of WAS testing on curriculum and instruction? (4) Why do upper elementary teachers prefer to continue or eliminate MCAS testing as a means for improving student learning? The schools participating in this study came from 254 randomly selected elementary schools in Massachusetts. A total of 310 third, fourth, and fifth grade teachers were selected from 41 diverse public schools that represented 12 of all 14 counties within the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Teacher Perception Survey, which included 66 Likert scale items and the Teacher Perception Interview, which consisted of four interview questions were used to gather data for answering the four research questions. Data for research question one suggest that teachers did not consider MCAS testing to be inclusive of important learning being taught in the their classroom. Data for research question two reveal that teachers do not consider MCAS testing as a major reason for improvements in student learning. Data for research question three imply that teachers' view MCAS testing as having more negative than positive impacts on curriculum and instruction. Data for research question four suggest that teachers' preference for eliminating MCAS testing is more extreme than their desire to keep MCAS testing as a means for improving student learning. Seventy-seven percent of participating teachers indicate a preference for eliminating MCAS testing.

The reporting of scores on educational tests is at times misunderstood, misinterpreted, and potentially confusing to examinees and other stakeholders who may need to interpret test scores. In reporting test results to examinees, there is a need for clarity in the message communicated. As pressure rises for students to demonstrate performance at a certain level, the communication of scores to the public needs to be examined. Although public school student testing often is placed in the spotlight, this study examines score reporting in teacher certification, which may not have the same complexities of student test score reporting, but does have the equally critical need to effectively communicate scoring information. The purpose of this study was to create multiple teacher certification examinee score reports based on findings in the literature on educational test score reporting, as well as marketing and design principles, and to conduct interviews and focus groups to gather feedback on the comprehension and preferences in interpreting the designed score reports and results. Different approaches for reporting test scores were used to design the score reporting materials for a hypothetical teacher certification testing examinee who had not passed. Educators and educational testing professionals were convened and interviewed to review the score reports and offer feedback, suggestions and discussion. The findings are covered in great detail. Using the findings, a final model score report was designed, which was then reviewed with doctoral students in educational measurement. Through this process, some clear patterns and differences arose. Overall, there was a desire on the educator and doctoral student end to provide as much information as possible, where supported by sound measurement principles. The reporting of raw performance information, as well as accommodating comprehension styles by providing performance information in contextual, statistical and visual ways were requested. Upon addressing these requests, two areas that may not have full clarity and direction remained: The process of converting raw score performance to a scaled score (participants wanted more information on this process), and information provided that could address candidate weak areas, directing examinees to materials that could improve their studies, understanding, and examination performance.

There is growing interest in alignment between state's standards and test content partly due to accountability requirements of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001. Among other problems, current alignment methods almost entirely rely on subjective judgment to assess curriculum-assessment alignment. In addition none of the current alignment models accounts for student actual performance on the assessment and there are no consistent criteria for assessing alignment across the various models. Due to these problems, alignment results employing different models cannot be compared. This study applied item mapping to student response data for the Massachusetts Adult Proficiency Test (MAPT) for Math and Reading to assess alignment. Item response theory (IRT) was used to locate items on a proficiency scale and then two criterion response probability (RP) values were applied to the items to map each item to a proficiency category. Item mapping results were compared to item writers' classification of the items. Chi-square tests, correlations, and logistic regression were used to assess the degree of agreement between the two sets of data. Seven teachers were convened for a one day meeting to review items that do not map to intended grade level to explain the misalignment. Results show that in general, there was higher agreement between SMEs classification and item mapping results at RP50 than RP67. Higher agreement was also observed for items assessing lower level cognitive abilities. Item difficulty, cognitive demand, clarity of the item, level of vocabulary of item compared to reading level of examinees and mathematical concept being assessed were some of the suggested reasons for misalignment.

Despite the push for universal education, many disadvantaged and poor children in developing countries still do not have access to basic education. This among other reasons is due to poverty where poor families cannot afford the cost of basic education even when it is ‘free’ of tuition (McDonald, 2007). Demand-side financing interventions such as scholarship programs are promising to be viable financing interventions of reaching out to the poor and marginalized children in order for them to access basic education. Although such financing strategies have been praised as having worked in mostly Latin American countries, very little is systematically known about how these interventions would work in poor African countries such as Malawi. This study therefore examines demand-side financing strategy through an evaluation of a scholarship program implemented in Malawi. It uses qualitative mode of inquiry through in-depth interviews of 36 key participants as a primary method of data collection. In addition it reviews program documents and conducts some cohort tracking on beneficiaries in Zomba rural district which is the site of the study. The findings show that community based targeting was used in the program and proved successful in identifying the right beneficiaries in a cost effective manner. It seems to offer a model to be adopted for such interventions in low resource countries. Findings further show that beneficiaries who received scholarships were able to persist however there was a substantial number that dropped out. There were a number of factors that caused this but it seems the internal motivation of beneficiaries to persist was very critical. This puts under the microscope an assumption that once scholarship is received, beneficiaries would persist in school. Last but not least, the findings also show that an assumption that local communities will be able to sustain such programs might be but a mere illusion as communities view themselves too poor to do this. Overall the study praises such programs as effective in targeting the poor and marginalized children however it puts a caution on assumptions about persistence & sustainability. It suggests further scrutiny on these assumptions to improve on the effectiveness of such programs and demand-side financing strategies in general.

State-mandated standardized testing comprises a significant component of student outcome measures utilized by the state and federal government to assess school district performance. Failure to meet Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) on standardized assessments can result in negative consequences for districts both systemically and financially. The current study analyzes the transition from the New Jersey Assessment of Skills and Knowledge (NJ ASK) to the Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) for the 2014-2015 school year. Among the differences between the two assessments is a change in modality, with students completing their PARCC English Language Arts (ELA) and Mathematics assessments via computer rather than the traditional paper-pencil administration on the NJ ASK. Outcome data for students from Vernon, New Jersey indicate that students performed significantly better on the NJ ASK than the PARCC for both ELA and Mathematics both in terms of score and proficiency level for the overall sample as well as a subset of students with disabilities. Familiarity with computer-based assessment from a cohort of students provided individual laptops for the duration of the school year did not improve student performance.

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