ABSTRACT The study investigated the degree to which medical students' health care reform perceptions, self-efficacy, role ambiguity, and year in medical school play a role in the degree to which they are committed to their medical degree and their most likely specialty choice. The study utilized the Health Care Reform Thoughts Survey (HCRTS; Goodin, 2010) to measure medical students' perceptions of the health care reform. Measurement modeling of the HCRTS instrument resulted in a 3 factor solution with a marginal fit, χ2(776) = 3,177.835, p < .001, CFI = .898, TLI = .893, RMSEA = .065, and SRMR = .052. The subscales of the instrument included Outlook (the extent of negativity toward the reform), Reaction (the degree to which medical students intend to modify their goals with respect to the reform), and Uncertainty (the perceived stability of the reform and its future). Students in Year 3 had significantly more Role Ambiguity than students in all other years. Specifically, they had a mean difference of 0.252 (p < .001) with Year 1, the control variable for Year. Reaction had a significant association with Role Ambiguity and Self-efficacy (β = 0.241, p < .001 and β = -0.247, p < .001, respectively). Both Role Ambiguity and Self-efficacy were found to be significantly associated with Specialty Commitment (β = -0.160, p < .001 and β = 0.128, p < .001, respectively). Finally, in the structural equation model, all predictors (Outlook, Reaction, Uncertainty, Year, Self-efficacy, and Role Ambiguity) were found to explain 29.1% of the variance in Specialty Commitment (p < .001). Findings suggest that the HCRTS be a continued resource in measuring the health care perceptions of medical students and other populations in modified form. Implications of the research findings are that medical student commitment to their career goals is affected by their perceptions of the health reform. Medical education must consider the impact of the reform in order to support the needs of medical students and public medical needs within the changing health care landscape. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 3, 2013. / Critical Life Events, Health Care Reform, Medical Education, Role Ambiguity, Self-efficacy, Specialty Choice / Includes bibliographical references. / Beth M. Phillips, Professor Directing Dissertation; Yanyun Yang, Professor Co-Directing Dissertation; Vanessa P. Dennen, Committee Member; Kathleen M. Clark, University Representative.

The drastic increase in the amount of children identified with autism spectrum disorders has become a "public health concern." Parents have increasingly been utilized as key components throughout the assessment and diagnostic process. Parents have also become a vital part of the development of interventions and their implementation in their children's education; and with significant gains. Despite improvements in interventions and service delivery models targeting autism and the abundance of newly diagnosed individuals, services for children with developmental disabilities continue to be difficult for parents and caregivers to access and . A significant portion of parents and caregivers who seek help for their children do not follow through with recommended interventions for a variety of reasons. Closer examination is needed to understand the decision making processes associated with parents' difficulties, inability, or refusal to access services necessary for their children's treatment. Another under-researched factor in the treatment of ASDs that may inhibit or facilitate service utilization involves parents' perception of service characteristics. The purpose of this study is to gain information regarding parents' perceptions of the multiple factors that may affect their decision making process when deciding which recommended services to utilize for their children following a diagnosis of ASD. This study primarily aims to examine reasons why parents may voluntarily choose to decline recommended services for their child. This project represents the first attempt to expand upon a previous model of help-seeking behaviors in order to create a model of help-seeking behaviors that explains the specific and unique experiences of parents of children diagnosed with ASD. The expanded theory proposes that, overall, parents' perceptions of the severity of their children's symptoms proved to have the greatest impact on their ability to access and utilize services for their children following a diagnosis of ASD. Parents' resourcefulness and ability to seek treatments and interventions for their children independently also greatly impacted their ability to access and utilize services. To a lesser extent, "outside influences," such as family, social, and community support also affected parents' ability to access and utilize services. Family, social, and community influence as well as pediatricians' feedback appeared to have the biggest impact on parents' decision making processes when initiating the diagnostic process. Service providers also had an impact at this stage in the diagnostic and treatment process. Many of the parents reported a desire for coordinated services before, during, following their children's diagnosis as they had difficulties "navigating the system." Following their children's diagnosis, many parents had difficulties deciding which services to access first and which service providers accepted their insurance. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 7, 2013. / autism, decision making, parents, services / Includes bibliographical references. / Steven I. Pfeiffer, Professor Directing Dissertation; Juliann Woods, University Representative; Frances Prevatt, Committee Member; Robert L. Glueckauf, Committee Member; Georgios Lampropoulos, Committee Member.

Despite findings suggesting that perfectionism may have important implications for individuals' career development, little research has examined adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism within a career decision-making context. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the impact of perfectionism type on the ipsative career self-efficacy, relative career self-efficacy, vocational identity, and interest differentiation of college students. Participants included 185 undergraduate students who volunteered to participate in a research pool in exchange for course credit. Score profiles on the Revised Almost Perfect Scale (APS-R) were used to categorize participants into groups of adaptive perfectionists, maladaptive perfectionists, and non-perfectionists; the Competencies and Self-Estimates scales of the Self-Directed Search (SDS) were used to measure ipsative and relative career self-efficacy, respectively; the Vocational Identity scale (VIS) of the My Vocational Situation (MVS) was used to measure vocational identity; and the Iachan Differentiation Index score from the SDS was used to measure interest differentiation. A one-way between-groups multivariate analysis of variance found that perfectionism type accounted for a significant amount of the total variance (9.8%) among the four dependent variables. Follow-up univariate analyses of variance and post-hoc pairwise comparisons found that both adaptive perfectionists and maladaptive perfectionists demonstrated greater levels of relative career self-efficacy than non-perfectionists, and that adaptive perfectionists demonstrated a greater level of vocational identity than both maladaptive perfectionists and non-perfectionists. No significant group differences of perfectionism type were identified with respect to ipsative career self-efficacy or interest differentiation. Results of this study support the relevance of perfectionism to career development, and limitations and implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 10, 2013. / Career Self-Efficacy, Interest Differentiation, Perfectionism, Vocational Identity / Includes bibliographical references. / James P. Sampson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Gerald R. Ferris, University Representative; Janet G. Lenz, Committee Member; Debra S. Osborn, Committee Member.

Over the past decade, the majority of research on perceived effort in children has emanated from a physiological perspective and has generally focused on the development of RPE scales for children. Although Tenenbaum (1999, 2001) and others have investigated the psychological factors related to perceived exertion in adults, research with children has excluded these factors. The current study examined the differences in the psychological factors involved in three components of effort perception between two cohorts of children at different stages of cognitive development (i.e. concrete operational stage and formal operation stage) during an exertive task. According to Piaget (1954, 1969) children in the concrete operational stage of development are typically between the ages of 7 to 11 years of age; while those in the formal operational stage of development are typically 11 years and older. Participants for this study were recruited from two general age groups: 9 years of age and 13 years of age. These participants were then screened on the PPVT-4th edition. The types of words used on the PPVT-4 vary from age group to age group; the level of abstractness for the words increases with age. Only children who were within the average range of receptive vocabulary were selected for this study. Fifty children participated in this study; 23 in the concrete operational stage and 27 in the formal operational stage of cognitive development. Three dimensions of perceived effort sensations, breathing, exertion, and determination, were measured at regular intervals for the duration of a stepping task. Each dimension was measured separately, using a weighted backpack at a physical load of either 0% or 20% of the participant's body weight. Contrary to expectations, results of this study revealed that children perceived the three effort dimensions differently across the duration of an exertive task and physical load. It was expected that children in the concrete operational group would not differentiate their ratings. However, both groups of participants differentiated their ratings. Exertion and breathing sensations were reported with an increased intensity in a linear fashion and also increased with intensity in physical load for both groups of participants. Unlike adults, determination ratings did not remain stable over time for the children in either stage of cognitive development, indicating that children may interpret this dimension differently than adults. This conclusion provides further support for Tenenbaum's (2001) multidimensional model of perceived effort, that exertion is only one of many sensations that are felt during exercise engagement (Hardy & Rejeski, 1989; McAuley & Courneya, 1994; Parfitt et al., 1994; Tenenbaum, 2001; Hutchinson & Tenenbaum, 2007). Thus, questioning the effectiveness of a one-item measure of effort, particularly for children. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 24, 2013. / Children, Perceived Effort, Perceived Exertion / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Directing Dissertation; Lynn Panton, University Representative; Robert Eklund, Committee Member; Jeannine Turner, Committee Member.

The study of psychological skill use in sport is a key area of research in sport psychology. Skilled athletes have been shown to use a variety of psychological skills in practice and competition to regulate their psychological states (Taylor, Gould, & Rolo, 2008; White & Hardy, 1998). However, the methods used to investigate psychological skill use have been questioned (Eccles, 2012). In particular, some studies have employed experimental procedures that constrain researchers' ability to elicit valid verbal reports of athletes' cognitive processes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the use of psychological skills by golfers, as they prepared to putt, using a think-aloud cognitive process-tracing measure. Specifically, golfers' use of psychological skills during a particular episode (i.e., golf putting task), as indicated by think-aloud reports, was compared with their reported use of psychological skills in general, as measured by a traditional questionnaire instrument. Less-skilled (n = 26) and skilled golfers (n = 26) performed short- and long-distance golf putts under low- and high-stress conditions. On selected trials, participants verbalized their thoughts concurrent with task performance. For each putt, putt accuracy and the time taken to putt were measured. Also, for each putt, the concurrent think-aloud reports were transcribed, and statements indicative of psychological skill use were identified and tabulated. Results indicated a positive and moderate correlation between a traditional questionnaire measure of performers' general use of psychological skills (TOPS-2) and psychological skill use during actual task performance, as measured by think-aloud reports. Participants used psychological skills moderately during their practice and competition sessions, as measured by TOPS-2 and during their preparation to putt, as measured by think-aloud reports. Regardless of the measure used, psychological skill use did not differ significantly between the skill groups. As expected, both groups perceived the long-distance putts as more difficult than short-distance putts, and experienced more anxiety in the high-stress condition than the low-stress condition. However, participants in both groups did not increase their use of psychological skills with the increase in task difficulty or anxiety, as indicated by think-aloud reports. Psychological skill use after unsuccessful and successful putts was also analyzed; prior putt performance had no significant effect on psychological skill use, as measured by think-aloud reports. Despite the concerns that general measures of psychological skill, such as the TOPS-2, might not capture the actual thoughts being experienced by athletes (instead tapping a priori, implicit causal theories), the moderate correlation found here suggests some validity for the TOPS-2. Overall, this study represents a step toward better understanding and measurement of psychological skill use in athletes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 26, 2013. / concurrent verbalization, golf putting, psychological skills, self-regulation, think-aloud, verbal reports / Includes bibliographical references. / David W. Eccles, Professor Directing Dissertation; Robert Eklund Co-, Professor Directing Dissertation; K. Anders Ericsson, University Representative; Gershon Tenenbaum, Committee Member; Neil Charness, Committee Member.

Motivational research attempts to clearly conceptualize the construct of motivation, measure it effectively, use the results to enhance student learning and success, and possibly make predictions about achievement. It has been proposed that core beliefs related to the nature of intelligence can determine one's response to challenges or setbacks and one's motivation level. The relationship between these constructs of motivation, theories of intelligence, and achievement has not been widely researched, and a clearer understanding in this area could help researchers, teachers, and parents use theories of intelligence to enhance achievement in students. This study explored a possible dimension of motivation, theory of intelligence, and examined 1.) the impact of theory of intelligence on academic motivation and achievement, 2.) the relationship between theory of intelligence and goal orientation (mastery vs. performance goals), and 3.) whether children's theories of intelligence tend to match those of their parents. Findings showed that motivation predicted GPA, that no direct relationship existed between theory of intelligence and achievement, that an incremental theory of intelligence predicted performance goals, and that parent theory of intelligence predicted child theory of intelligence. / A Dissertation submitted to the College of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / October 25, 2012. / academic motivation, achievement goals, motivation, theory of intelligence / Includes bibliographical references. / Steven Pfeiffer, Professor Directing Dissertation; Sherry Southerland, University Representative; Georgios Lampropoulos, Committee Member; Angela Canto, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a no peer-discussion strategy and a peer discussion strategy on student learning and attitudes in two large lecture sections of an undergraduate macroeconomics class using informal dyads and a combination of traditional and Think-Pair-Share questions. Random assignment was used to determine the experimental and control sections. Each section contained more than 400 subjects, comprised predominantly of freshmen and sophomore students from across a wide variety of disciplines. Dependent variable one, student learning, was subdivided into four dependent variables and categorized according to Bloom's (1956) taxonomy for additional analysis. Dependent variable two, student attitude, was measured by a survey that assessed four different factors. The results for the student learning variable did not support the hypothesis that students in the peer discussion group would have higher test scores. The hypothesis that the predicted increased student attitudes in the peer discussion group was only partially supported. However, survey reliability was very low, thereby reducing the value of the finding. The importance of classroom management and structure emerged as an overall factor to consider when developing instructional strategies that include the use of informal dyads and peer discussion in large lecture classes. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2013. / January 31, 2013. / Bloom, clicker, instructional strategies, peer discussion / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert Reiser, Professor Directing Dissertation; Stephen McDowell, University Representative; Valerie Shute, Committee Member; Alysia Roehrig, Committee Member.

In the study, anticipation and situational assessment skills were examined using a video-based simulated task environment (STE). The objectives of the study were to examine skill and gender based differences in the ability to predict what an opponent will actually do next in a given scenario (anticipation), the ability to pick-up specific information cues from their opponent, and assess the importance of that information (option generation and prioritization). High and low skill male and female soccer players were shown action clips of developing plays, frozen (i.e., cued) or occluded (i.e., non-cued) at three temporal points (i.e., 400ms, 200ms and 0ms prior to an opponent player's action). Participants were then asked to predict what will happen next, generate plausible options, and rank them. Results indicated that high-skill players performed better on the anticipation and situational assessment tasks throughout the task conditions (i.e., cued/non-cued, temporal). Moreover, task conditions affected high and low skill participants differently. Gender differences were also observed. Males were able to anticipate what will happen next more accurately, generate more plausible options, and prioritize them more efficiently, than females. Task conditions affected both genders similarly. The study is one of the first in the area, and findings provide insight into the option generation and anticipation processes in a dynamic team sport setting. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / June 24, 2013. / Anticipation, Situational Assessment, Soccer / Includes bibliographical references. / Gershon Tenenbaum, Professor Directing Dissertation; Thomas Joiner, University Representative; Robert Eklund, Committee Member; Tom Ratliffe, Committee Member.

This study was designed to explore both personal and career concerns to enhance theoretical approaches and practical interventions for the future. The Self-Directed Search (SDS) Form R Internet version was randomly administered to create an experimental design with a treatment (SDS) and control group (No SDS). The SDS allows participants to rate their activities, competencies, preferences, and occupations, and provide self-estimates across six RIASEC areas (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional). In return, participants receive a three-letter summary code and a 10- to 12-page customized printout to explore occupations, fields of study, and leisure, known as the SDS Interpretive Report (Reardon & PAR Staff, 2010). The SDS was chosen as the treatment based upon its validity, reliability, and widespread use. In addition, two independent variables were utilized in this study: vocational identity measured by the Vocational Identity Scale from the My Vocational Situation (MVS), and anxiety measured by the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Vocational identity is "the possession of a clear and stable picture of one's goals, interests, and talents" (Holland, Daiger, & Power, 1980, p. 1) while anxiety refers to symptoms including physiological (numbness, tingling, dizziness, or lightheadedness) and subjective anxiety/panic (fear of the worst happening or inability to relax) concerns. Career exploration was the dependent variable, and included the measurement of both self-exploration (SE) and environmental exploration (EE) upon the recommendations of Stumpf and colleagues (1983). This study improved upon previous methodology by including a control group, and one of the unique components of the study was the inclusion of both vocational and personal concerns with the MVS and BAI. T-test and multivariate analyses were conducted to assess the impact of the SDS Form R Internet version, vocational identity, and anxiety on career exploration (SE and EE). Results did not support the original hypotheses; however, some additional analyses resulted in statistically significant findings. The impact of the SDS Form R Internet version on the number of occupations being explored and the frequency of engagement in career exploration behavior were both significant. The amount of time spent reviewing the SDS Interpretive Report was also significant in relation to the number of occupations being explored and the frequency of engagement in career exploration behavior. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2013. / May 30, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references. / James P. Sampson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; John R. Reynolds, University Representative; Georgios Lampropoulos, Committee Member; Janet G. Lenz, Committee Member.

Body Image Dissatisfaction (BID) has been considered as one of the important antecedents of Social Physique Anxiety (SPA; Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989). However, the context of romantic relationship has yet to be considered in extant studies on the relationship between BID and SPA. The aim of the present study was to explore moderating effect of several romantic relationship variables in the relationship between BID with partner-SPA and exercise behaviors. College age students (N = 207, Mage = 20.92, SDage = 1.60) completed online questionnaires on body image dissatisfaction, romantic relationship status, length, and romantic relationship satisfaction, exercise behaviors, and partner-SPA. There was a positive yet insignificant correlation between BID and exercise behaviors (r = .07). Therefore, they were excluded from moderating effect analyses. Results indicated that only romantic relationship satisfaction moderated in the relationship between BID and partner-SPA. It was concluded that poor romantic relationship increased the risks of partner-SPA in college students when they were already concerned with body image. After controlling BID, the partner-SPA was consistently higher among undergraduate students who reported lower romantic relationship satisfaction than those who report higher relationship satisfaction. The threshold level of BID that led to significant difference in partner-SPA across different levels of romantic relationship satisfaction was not examined in this study, and warrants further investigation. It was suggested that romantic relationship status should be considered as an important source of body-image-related concerns in future research and counseling practices. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Spring Semester, 2013. / March 18, 2013. / Body image, Exercise, Moderator, Romantic Relationship, Social Physique Anxiety / Includes bibliographical references. / Robert Eklund, Professor Directing Thesis; Gershon Tenebaum, Committee Member; Insu Paek, Committee Member.