Mathematics education reform is informed by constructivist theories that forefront student learning of concepts, and by sociocultural theories whose focus is on students mastery of mathematical practices. As Cobb (1994) pointed out, these theorizations are inconsistent with one another, leading to conflict as some theorists seek to promote their approach as the correct one. Alternatively, Cobb, and many others in the social constructivism or the situated cognition camps, seek some sort of integration or balancing of these priorities in pedagogical theorizing. Kirshner (2002, 2004, 2008) argued that instead of either selecting one theory or balancing/coordinating the two theories, we should regard each theory as an independent basis for pedagogical practice, and articulate a separate genre of teaching for each. In that spirit, the current study sought to explore pedagogical methods directed exclusively to enculturating students into mathematical practices, particularly, practices of argumentation characteristic of mathematical proof. The researcher worked with a group of 11 average-ability students in the 11-12 age range, over 24, half-hour sessions. At first, students were called upon to discuss various basic geometric terms, and then to present arguments establishing the truth of 10 basic geometric theorems. Students worked together in groups to discuss the problems, and presented their proofs. All sessions were videotaped and transcribed, and each students arguments were coded for sophistication on a 4-level system based on the work of Lolli (2005) and Douek (2009). The results indicated that all students advanced in their level of sophistication, most moving from level 1 in which one understands that an explanation is required, but one does not understand the obligation for the explanation to be logically persuasive to level 3 in which one coordinates the elements of the argument in a way that is consistent with logically sound deductive reasoning. The qualitative analysis of interactional processes illustrates the influence of the groups level of discourse on individual development.

Explaining the complex nature of how leadership works within the school has proven difficult; consequently, many studies have shown little or no effects of leadership on student outcomes and school performance (Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999; Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004). Furthermore, researchers acknowledge that a gap exists in the literature between explaining models of leadership and describing the effective actions of leadership (Grissom & Loeb, 2011; Kruger et al, 2007; Robinson, 2006; Robinson et al 2008; Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2004). Of the research that does link leadership practices to student outcomes and school performance, the assumed indicators of leadership effectiveness, in most cases the relationship was studied through indirect effects (Leithwood, Patten, & Jantzi, 2010). On the school front, restructuring options are being implemented for schools that fail to raise their test scores. Each of these options includes the opportunity for replacing the leadership and a number of the teachers in those schools. Specifically for Louisiana, the state in which this study was conducted, as of 2012, the state is seeing some gains, but thirty-six percent (36%) of Louisianas schools have received D or F (LDOE, 2012a). In addition, for 2012, forty-two additional schools received the grade F, an increase from 115 to 157 schools (LDOE, 2012a). As a result, Louisiana continues to implement sanctions in an attempt to improve school performance. The purpose of this study was to use case study methodology to explore the perceptions and practices of leadership in a Southern, urban middle school. Results supported the implementation of Distributed and Instructional Leadership practices. A major implication of this study is that it challenges the sanctions enforced by NCLB, by representing effective leadership in a struggling school, thereby raising questions of the appropriateness of holding principals responsible for school performance.

Research suggests that when students realize a personal connection to their learning environment and feel their identities are supported, successful learning can take place (Nasir, 2012). Specifically, the use of texts that are meaningful to the lives of African American males can provide spaces for them to explore their unique identities (Tatum, 2009). Such texts can include young adult literature, which offers potential for motivating students to engage in reading, especially because of its themes relevant to teen readers. While much research exists about the various YAL books available, less is known about what actually happens when teens read young adult novels (Hayn, Kaplan, & Nolen, 2011). In light of this, through this dissertation I investigate what happens when a teacher uses two young adult novels with her students to explore their identities. The purpose of this research was to explore African American adolescent male identities through young adult literature. Using ethnographic methods and two young adult novels, I conducted this research with eleven African American male students in Ms. Clarks second and third period English II classes at Bayou Central High School during the 2012-2013 school year. Data collection occurred throughout the two novel units and included classroom observations, participant interviews, surveys, questionnaires, and examination of student work. Student work samples included reading response journals, personal essays, group activities, and a culminating mural on identity. Data analysis involved coding to develop categories and themes, which were then triangulated with supporting data. Findings were interpreted through a New Literacy Studies frame, as well as reader response theory. Findings suggest that participants found connections with young adult novels, particularly those containing characters or plots relating to participants lives. Other findings indicate that participants projected different identities, dependent upon the social scene in which they operated. In addition, data suggest participants found a lack of appreciation in school contexts for their out-of-school literate lives. Implications include the need for classroom teachers to craft a curriculum more reflective of the unique cultural identities of African American males, as well as inclusion of their out-of-school literacies in everyday learning experiences.

ABSTRACT Research into young childrens leadership skills is sparse and focused on leadership in classroom contexts. Understanding of leadership development in young children can be expanded by studying parents perceptions of childrens leadership development as it is enacted in contexts outside of the school. The purpose of this qualitative study was to provide an examination of beliefs, practices, and contextual relationships of families with young children who were identified within their schools as having strong leadership skills. Student leaders were identified using the Leadership subscale of the Scales for Rating the Behavioral Characteristics of Superior Students--Third Edition (SRBCSS-III; Renzulli et al., 2010). Four mothers and three fathers of identified first graders who met income level, gender, and ethnic selection criteria participated. Interviews were conducted with structured and unstructured open-ended questions and parent journals were collected from participants. This research provides (a) a synthesis of early childhood leadership research in classroom settings and (b) an understanding of the parenting practices and beliefs that parents perceive as helping young children develop leadership skills. A synthesis of early childhood leadership resulted in 10 categories of young leadership typically seen in the classroom. The resulting categories were: shows awareness of differences in people, has influence on others, regulates emotions, is socially active, expresses creativity, is highly organized, displays physical competence, displays self-confidence, exhibits linguistic competence, and listens to peers. This study added new categories of young leadership enactment outside of the classroom setting. The new categories were: determination, morality, love of learning, and non-biased attitude. Using Bronfenbrenners Bioecological Model (1979; 1999), contextual influences on young childrens leadership development were investigated. Findings indicate that parents perceived the childs personality and the childs environment as having a joint effect on leadership development. Parents discussed their perceptions of supportive and non-supportive influences on young leadership development. Implications of parents' perceptions for classroom teachers' support of young children's leadership development are provided.

The purpose of this study was the development and testing of a novel method for assessment of white blood cell (WBC) identification skills used in the field of Clinical Laboratory Sciences (CLS). A dual format exam was administered to both novices (students) and experts (laboratory professionals). Format 1 was similar to current assessment formats, simply presenting a series of single WBC images for identification. Format 2 applied principles of visual cognition, grouping WBCs for identification by patient and presenting multiple example images from the patient before requesting identification of individual cells. This novel exam format was intended to: (a) provide a contextualized visual background for single cell identifications, (b) mirror the process of WBC identification used in clinical practice, and (c) promote improved performance on difficult/atypical WBC identifications. The second phase of this study implemented qualitative methods to categorize the general cognitive processing styles used by novices/experts as either analytical or similarity-based. Cognitive processing styles were compared across the 2 levels of expertise as well as across exam formats. Statistical analyses did suggest that expert performance levels were significantly improved by the novel exam presentation format. Novice performance, however, was not significantly altered by exam format. Evaluation of response times indicated that expert response times were significantly shorter than novice response times in format 2, but not in format 1. In addition, analysis of qualitative data suggested that experts differed significantly from novices in their cognitive verbalizations for format 2, with experts making more statements at a higher cognitive level than did the novices. Format 1 verbalization differences were not found to be significant. Overall results indicated that the novel exam format invoked experts to implement similarity-based processing, allowing some identifications to be made at the level of the patient case, rather than simply at the feature identification level. Implications of this study include possible alterations to current certification/proficiency exam formats for questions requiring the visual identification of white blood cells. This study also suggests that using patient image sets as instructional stimuli may encourage the development of advanced cognitive processing skills in students.

The Biglan system of classifying disciplines in groups based on similarities and differences in their subject matter has been validated in numerous empirical studies. The present study sought to expand that validation by comparing two Biglan groups that include disciplines representing the social and behavioral sciences. As a unique point of comparison, preferred research methods were contrasted between Psychology and Sociology forming one group of pure disciplines and Education and Nursing forming another group of applied disciplines. A code sheet was developed to categorize the various components of published research, distinguishing at the most basic level quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods type articles. Data was collected from research articles published in high impact journals from each discipline. The complete data set consisted of the codes from 150 randomly selected articles from journals in each discipline, or 300 articles per group. These codes were converted into frequencies and analyzed using the Chi-Square statistic. Findings showed there are significant differences in preferences for quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research approaches between the two Biglan groups. Significant differences were also found in certain methodological components of the basic research approaches including research designs, sampling methods, and data collection methods. Evidence was also found of the philosophical paradigms underlying methodological choices, and analysis revealed significant differences in the paradigms preferred by the two groups. All of these findings support the validity of the Biglan scheme of classifying disciplines based on differences in the preferred approach to research methodology. These findings also suggest that the Biglan system represents a useful tool for promoting interdisciplinary discourse on research. Directions for future research are indicated that would further confirm the findings of the present study, move towards a wider validation of the Biglan system, and explore more deeply the philosophical underpinnings of the paradigmatic differences founding diverse research methodologies.

This mixed methods, exploratory study investigated the importance of the menstrual cycle diagram for understanding human reproduction. Several theories were used to support this study including Visual Design Theory (Tufte, 1990, 1997, 2001), and Human Constructivist Theory (Mintzes, Wandersee, Novak 1998). The two sexuality education programs used by society, abstinence-only programs and comprehensive sex education programs were compared to illustrate how this study applies to the current state of sexuality education in the United States. Community college students from two institutions in the southern region of the United States, registered in five introductory biological science courses, participated in a unit on the menstrual cycle diagram. These students were given a pretest and posttest probing their knowledge about the menstrual cycle and the value added by using a menstrual cycle diagram during instruction. The main diagram that was tested used a calendar format diagram designed by the researcher. After the posttest was administered, six students from each course were clinically interviewed. A partitioned content analysis was performed on the qualitative data with respect to student understanding and variables--gender, age category, prior knowledge, childbearing experience and geographic area. Pearsons chi-square analysis was used on the quantitative data to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the answers for each question on the pretest and posttest. In addition, a paired t-test was performed on the quantitative data to determine if there was a statistically significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores of the students who participated in the study, overall and by category. Nine of the 23 questions showed a statistical significant difference between the pretest and posttest. On six of those nine questions the students knowledge increased as a result of the presentation. The areas of the menstrual cycle where knowledge was gained included: menses/menstruation, ovulation, menopause, hormonal control, and life span of sperm. During the interviews, students indicated there was value added to their understanding of the menstrual cycle with the use of the content-equivalent, calendar-format menstrual cycle diagram. The value added was directly related to the symbols used to represent the events of the menstrual cycle.

This study examined the value added to standard textbook-based instruction of plant biodiversity by the use of the exemplary interactive CD-ROM, Conserving Earths Biodiversity. This CD-ROM features renowned conservation figure E.O. Wilson. The setting of the research was an introductory biology course in a rural public community college in the Deep South. Six participants were purposively selected to represent three levels of achievement and two groups, the CD-ROM group (exposed to CD-ROM in addition to the textbook) and the textbook group (only course textbook). Students experienced lecture-based, textual, virtual, and real experiences, and examined their ability to understand biodiversity-related concepts and to pursue guided-inquiry questions about local plant biodiversity. Their performance was assessed through activities, quizzes, concept maps, interviews, surveys, and students presentations. This study led to three main findings. First, use of the CD-ROM, in addition to the textbook, allowed students to form a well-rounded grasp of plant biodiversity. Second, use of the CD-ROM enhanced the development of inquiries on local plant biodiversity and the metacognitive phase of assigning roles for local plant diversity. Third, the Plant Biodiversity Literacy Rubric [PBLR] was developed, based upon the history of the concept of biodiversity and was used to evaluate students progress by assigning them to various levels of understanding during the study. The students in the CD-ROM group gained a broader perspective of plant biodiversity-related concepts, such as levels of biodiversity, hot spots, genetic diversity, food plant diversity, and threats to biodiversity. The CD-ROM was never detrimental to the learning process. They were more self-directed in their development of inquiries, felt more confident about their presentations, and were more metacognitive during their inquiries. Performance on specific activities such as the essay and The Golden List of Species suggested an enhanced cognitive-behavioral/affective experience for students in the CD-ROM group. The PBLR is an exportable instrument, which may allow ecology educators at all levels to assess students levels of understanding in a sensitive way. At this time, it is critical to gauge effective understanding of plant biodiversity and ecology education, as it is vital to the survival and well-being of life on Earth.

The manhood constructions and collegiate experiences of twenty-four engaged African American men enrolled across twelve, four-year colleges were explored. The purpose of this study was to inform colleges about the ways in which these men construct their manhood. The manifestations of these constructions in African American college men's behavior, enrollment, and campus engagement were also investigated. The participants, who represented a range of college engagement, were enrolled in colleges that are situated across the nineteen southern and border states of the United States of America. The institutional selection matrix was further disaggregated according to predominant population (HBCU, HWI) and institutional funding type (public, private). A qualitative research approach was used to forward this study. Specifically, a combination of grounded theory, phenomenological, and case study methodologies examined the nexus between African American manhood and collegiate experiences. The combined research methods were applied to data gleaned from face-to-face interviews that lasted over two hours. Six trustworthiness techniques support the following emergent themes of manhood constructions and collegiate experiences: (1) self-expectations (2) relationships and responsibilities to family (3) worldviews and life philosophies (4) double-consciousness (5) institutional recognition (6) constructing faculty/student relationships (7) mentoring and supporting (8) bridging campus and community. Respondents reported differences in the ways in which they were treated and engaged in historically black and white institutions, also reinforcing various manhood constructs. Emerging divergent perspectives informed a grouping of these men into the following manhood typologies: (1) sexualizer (2) transgressor (3) misogynist and (4) self-actualizer. The manhood typologies were presented in this dissertation research to further highlight the complexities, underscore the pressures, and draw attention to the ways in which society, and its sundry contexts, further complicates these men's manhood constructions. Implications are included for the following higher education areas: (1) institutional climate (2) student mentoring (3) faculty development (4) student enrichment (5) contextual cross-pollinations by race and gender. Implications for theory and research are also presented.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how photograph-based life science multiple-choice items influenced Louisiana science students' performance on statewide standardized tests, in comparison with text-based items about the same content. This mixed methodology research study focused primarily on types of multiple-choice items, specifically five matched pairs of multiple-choice items, text-only and same-text with a photograph. For the 2007 LEAP field test, statistics from 11 multiple-choice items were utilized to characterize student performance on photograph-based multiple-choice items. Data from all Louisiana 8th grade students taking Form 3 (n=1130) and Form 4 (n=1182) were analyzed to compare student performance on each item type. Additional case study research was conducted in two schools. Within each school, one 8th grade class was exposed to the 20-Question Model (Wandersee, 2000) (treatment group); the remaining 8th grade classes were not (control group). Questionnaires were given to all 8th grade students at each school which focused on the student's experience when answering the field test questions with a photograph. In addition four eighth-grade students, who were contrasted on gender and on high or low academic performance, were interviewed and asked to co-construct six concept maps related to six different test items used in the study (four with photographs, two without photographs). The analysis of the quantitative data showed a significant difference on the heron item. There was a moderate positive correlation between achievement level and mean number correct on the photograph-based items (r_s=.1536). The data show that students performing at low achievement levels benefited from the photograph-based item. The qualitative data analysis revealed positive student perception when working with photographs during classroom instruction and taking assessments. The student interviews and concept maps with the four students revealed students' conceptions and misconceptions about life science concepts.