CHANGES IN BODY IMAGE DURING A RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR WOMEN. There are conflicting results regarding the relationship between exercise and body image. Most research has been cross sectional and cannot determine if dis/satisfaction motivates exercise behaviours or if exercise participation changes dis/satisfaction for better or worse. Also, it has not been established if exercise influences how accurately we estimate our size and how this relates to perception and evaluation of ideals and others. Furthermore, little attention has been directed towards investigating if body image actually changes and it is not clear if exercise plays a therapeutic or detrimental role. The aim of this study was to: a) investigate changes in perceptual and attitudinal body image and changes in body composition during an exercise training programme for women and b) examine the relationship between changes in physical measures and changes in psychological measures. The treatment group (25 females) participated in a 16 week resistance training programme. The control group (n = 12) did not undertake any exercise (above a recreational level). Anthropometric and psychometric tests were administered at 0, 8 and 16 weeks outside pre- and menstrual phases. The results obtained indicated that 1) for both exercise and control groups, there were significant decreases in skinfold thicknesses but no changes in gross measures such as mass, body mass index (BMI), chest-to-waist ratio (CWR) and waist-to-hips ratio (WHR); 2) both groups demonstrated improved size estimation accuracy, less discrepancy between the actual and self-estimated BMI, increased ideal size and a decrease in the perceptual measure of dissatisfaction; 3) both groups increased the sum of regional satisfaction scores; 4) both groups decreased dissatisfaction measured via the Body Shape Questionnaire and 5) similar to other studies, anthropometric variables explain only a small part of the variability in body image. The study demonstrates that body image, measured by a number of instruments, can change. However, improvements in body image cannot be fully explained by exercise participation or changes in body composition. It is possible that desensitisation to exposing the body during repeated measures, perceived social support of the experimenter or even seasonal factors may have contributed to such changes. Exercise is associated with many benefits but is not evident if it has a unique contribution to improved body image health. It cannot be excluded as a potential intervention but should be tailored to individual motivations.

Progressive resistance training (PRT) in the elderly has commonly used ATPase histochemistry to evaluate fiber type changes, but evidence shows there are myosin heavy chain (MHC) hybrids in aging muscle that cannot be classified by histochemistry. The purpose of this study was to assess the MHC and whole muscle alterations following a 12-week PRT protocol. Seven healthy men (age=74.0±4.7, weight=74.6±13.5kg) underwent testing for 1-repetition maximum (1-RM), whole muscle (thigh) crosssectional area (CSA) by computed tomography, and a needle muscle biopsy from the vastus lateralis for analysis of MHC, pre- and post-training. The PRT consisted of 2 sets of 10 repetitions, and a third set to volitional exhaustion at 80% 1-RM, 3 days per week for 12 weeks. Muscle ATPase histochemistry analysis for distribution did not significantly differ following training. Muscle samples were freeze dried and dissected for MHC analysis (sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (5% gel) and silver stained; 224.0±11.2 and 213.0±8.1 fibers/subject pre-/post-training; total fibers analyzed=3059). MHC analysis demonstrated significant increases in MHC I proportion (10.4%; P<0.05), and significant decreases in MHC UIIa (9.0%; P<0.05), UIIa/x (0.9%; P<0.05), and IIa/x (8.9%; P<0.05) isofroms, along with no change in the MHC Ila and IIx isoforms, pre- versus post-training. In addition, 1-RM (51.9%; P<0.05) and CSA (5.9%; P<0.05) increased from pre- to post-testing. This data supports previous whole muscle changes, more important, is the increase in MHC I and decrease in MHC I/IIa, I/IIa/IIx, and IIa/x hybrids. The myosin light chain 3f (MLC3f) to MLC 2 ratio did not change with the PRT in either the MHC I or MHC IIa isoforms, although there was a significantly greater amount of MLC 3f in the MHC Ila versus the MHC I fibers (p<0.05), pre- and post-training. The myosin isofrom data provides support that aging muscle has the plasticity to adapt in a manner unlike that of young muscle. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between physical activity (PA) and cognitive function in older adults Additionally, the study sought to determine if older adults adhering to ACSM PA guidelines would exhibit significantly better cognitive function than their less active peers. Thirty-five participants (M= 70.6 ± 4.6 years), 21 males and 14 females free of diagnosed cognitive disorders or prescribed psychotropic medications from the Muncie, IN. region were recruited for analysis. Resting heart rate, blood pressure, health history and basic body composition variables were evaluated to determine study eligibility. The Trail Making Task and Stroop Color and Word Test were used to assess cognitive function. Time spent in sedentary, light and moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA), energy expenditure and total steps were measured for a one-week period by accelerometry (ActiGraph GT3x) and questionnaire (International Physical Activity Questionairre). Weekly MVPA was found to correlate significantly with Stroop Word (W) (r =.446, p = < .05), Stroop Color (C) (r =.389, p = < .05) and Stroop Color-Word (CW) (r =.609, p = < .05) performance outcomes. MVPA was also found to have a significant relationship with Trail Making Test Part B (TMTb) outcomes (r = -.358, p < .05). Energy expenditure was related with cognitive performance where W (r = .416, p = <.05), C (r = .424, p = < .05), CW (r = .656, p = < .05), TMTb (r = -.532, p = < .05) and difference between TMT Parts A and B (TMTdiff) (r = -.485, p = < .05) were significant. Total steps/week were strongly correlated to MVPAACC+ (r = .752, p = < .05) as well as CW scores (r = .388, p < .05). Women were shown to have a stronger relationship between MVPAACC+ and TMTb performance outcomes (r = .732, p < .05). Independent t-tests indicated that older adults participating in > 150 minutes of MVPA weekly perform better on Stroop W, C and CW (p = .003, p = .001, and p = .015, respectively) when compared to less active peers. Increased MVPA indicates improved cognitive performance outcomes in older adults when compared to less active peers. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The primary purpose of this study was to determine the ratio of activation between the VMO and the VL during an open chain knee exercise (dynamic knee extension) and a closed chain knee exercise (lateral step-up). A secondary purpose of this study was to compare muscle activation during the concentric and eccentric phase of the exercises. The data obtained during the knee extension exercise was further analyzed to compare the activity of the VMO and VL during three ranges of knee flexion: 0° - 30°, 30° - 60°, and 60° - 90°. Electromyographic (EMG) data was collected while 20 Ball State University students, who were asymptomatic for Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome, performed the two selected exercises. A one way ANOVA showed no statistically significant difference between the VMO: VL ratio of the two exercises, but the lateral step-up did produce a ratio greater than 1.0. A one-way ANOVA indicated a significant difference between the RMS values of the VL for the concentric and eccentric phase of the knee extension exercise. Based on the results of this study, the lateral stepup and eccentric training could be used to selectively strengthen the VMO for the treatment of PFPS. / School of Physical Education

The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) currently recommends 1 set of 8 - 12 repetitions as the minimal dose of resistance training (RT) required to achieve the health and fitness benefits gained from RT. Yet, certain benefits derived from resistance training are not mentioned by the ACSM. An increase in basal metabolic rate (BMR) is a possible health benefit derived from RT. However, no previous studies have examined the effect of the ACSM's current resistance training recommendations on BMR. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if this low level of RT could increase BMR in currently active older men. Sixteen subjects were assigned to either a training group or control group for 10 weeks of training. The training group continued their current aerobic activity while adding 1 set of RT 2x/week as recommended by the ACSM. The control group continued their aerobic activity with no modifications. Measurements of strength, fat free mass (FFM), and BMR were made pre- and posttraining. The training group showed an increase in strength (P<0.05) while the control group did not change. The training and control groups showed no change in FFM or BMR (P<0.05). The strength increases reported in the current study were of expected values while FFM and BMR have not been previously examined with this protocol. It was concluded that 10 weeks of RT using 1 set of 8 - 12 repetitions does not increase BMR in currently active older men. / School of Physical Education

Research has argued that effortful cognitive functioning is more susceptible to age-related decline compared to tasks that can be performed with minimal cognitive effort. Aerobic exercise has also been associated with beneficial cognitive effects for tasks implicating higher order executive control processing. Therefore, the current study aims to investigate whether aerobic exercise selectively improves executive control processing which is known to be disproportionately effected by aging, potentially counteracting cognitive deterioration in healthy aging. Although behavioural studies have provided inconsistent findings, EEG/ERP studies investigating the effects of acute exercise intensity on neural activity during executive control tasks are limited in numbers and have mainly focused on younger rather than older populations. Ten healthy participants consisting of five young (mean age = 20±1 years, two male, three female) and five older adults (mean age = 67±4 years, three male, two female) performed a computerised Stroop test with continuous EEG following a 20 minute bout of acute cycling at 40% and 70% heart rate reserve, compared to a no exercise control. Behavioural reaction times showed no significant age effects for exercise condition or congruency, although moderate exercise was associated with the fastest reaction times for congruent trials. The P3b and N450 components also showed no significant higher order effects specific to trial congruency, although significant age effects were observed at the frontal region following acute exercise. The P3b and N450 amplitudes were reduced at the frontal region for the young group following moderate exercise compared to the control, suggesting processing efficiency was enhanced. However, for the older group P3b and N450 amplitudes increased at the frontal region following high intensity exercise compared to moderate, suggesting that high intensity exercise had a negative effect on cognitive processing. Acute exercise does not selectively improve executive control processing during the Stroop test, but rather seems to facilitate a non-specific global activation of neural resources at the frontal region. Acute moderate and high intensity exercise were associated with enhanced frontal processing for young adults, but impaired functioning for older adults. These findings are understood in terms of Compensatory-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits, the Posterior-Anterior Shift in Aging and Scaffolding Theory of Cognitive Aging.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine differences under resting conditions (baseline) and after a bout of resistance exercise, in the total amount and the activation (phosphorylation) of the p42/44 MAPK signaling cascade proteins (ERK 1/2, p90RSK, and MNK 1) in young and old men. Eight young (22±1 yr) and eight old (79±3 yr) men underwent a resting muscle biopsy of the vastus lateralis, then a knee extensor resistance exercise session (29 contractions at -70% of max), followed by a post-exercise biopsy. The total protein expression and phosphorylation state for ERK 1/2, p90RSK, and MNK 1 was determined by Western immunoblot analysis. Total protein expression of ERK 1/2 and MNK 1 were not different between the young and old, before and after exercise. The resistance exercise bout caused an increase in phosphorylation of the ERK 1/2, p90RSK, and MNK 1 proteins (73, 95, and 61%, respectively; P<0.05) in the young men. Conversely, the older men showed a decrease in ERK 1/2, p90RSK, and MNK1 phosphorylation (-48, -62, and -37%, respectively; P<0.05) after the exercise bout (versus old pre). Although, the old men displayed higher pre-exercise phosphorylation of these proteins versus young pre-exercise (131, 248, and 74%, respectively; P<0.05). This investigation is the first to provide evidence that MAPK signaling pathways differentially respond under resting and exercise conditions in skeletal muscle of young and old men. These findings may have implications for other processes (e.g. transcription and translation) involved in skeletal muscle type and growth, when examining the changes occurring with aging muscle before and after resistance exercise/training. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was (1) to compare the lower body strength, power, and the bone mineral density (BMD) of the proximal femur in a group of trained postmenopausal women who have been in low intensity exercise program for a long time with age-matched sedentary controls, and (2) to evaluate the magnitude of the correlation between muscle function and site-specific BMD in these postmenopausal women. Healthy postmenopausal women (n = 17) between the age of 60 and 80 were divided into two groups: 9 exercisers (mean ± SE, 74.8 ± 3.2 years) who had been in an exercise training program for at least 5 years and 8 control (mean ± SE, 71.6 ± 3.4 years) who had not been in any exercise program for at least 5 years. The exercise group performed three one hour sessions a week of aerobic and resistance training for an average of 9.9 years. The exercise training consisted of 30 minutes walking and one or two sets of twelve to fifteen repetitions focused on large muscle groups. The BMD of the proximal femoral region was assessed using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). By using a Cybex Leg Press machine, 1-repetition maximum (1-RM) tests were performed for lower body strength and power of lower body were obtained by a seated chair rise. Statistical analysis demonstrated no statistical differences between the left and right region of the femur BMD for either group, with the averaged BMD being 0.858 g/cm2 for the controls and 0.853 g/cm2 for the exercisers. The trochanter BMD for the exercisers were 7 % (left) and 6 % (right) higher than the controls although these values were not statistically significant. The 1RM leg press strength ranged from 29.5 to 47.6 kg (mean ± SE, 40.21 ± 2.62 kg) in controls and from 31.8 to 61.2 kg (mean ± SE, 45.93 ± 3.72 kg) in exercisers. Although the exerciser group lifted 14.2 % more weight than the control group, the difference was not statistically significant. The results of power test ranged from 14.59 to 31.21 kg • m/sec (mean ± SE, 22.94 ± 5.67 kg • m/sec) in controls and from 13.63 to 38.60 (mean ± SE, 28.88 ± 6.81 kg • m/sec). The power did not differ significantly between the two groups. However, it is noted that between group differences approached significance at p < 0.07. Correlations between body composition and femoral neck BMD were also determined. Neither weight, nor BMI was significantly correlated with femoral neck BMD in the exercise and control group. Lower body strength and power did not correlate with the BMD of the femoral neck, Ward's triangle, or trochanter in either group. Although the BMD of the proximal femoral region did not differ between two groups the higher mean age (+ 3.2 years) of the exercise group suggested that a low intensity exercise training program can increase power and strength and maintain BMD in postmenopausal women. However, the low intensity of resistance training program utilized by the exercise group was no more effective in maintaining BMD than an active lifestyle. / School of Physical Education

M.A. (Psychology) / The incidence of hypertension in the geriatric population is very high and is a significant determinant of cardiovascular risk in this group Treatment of hypertension in the elderly is associated with decreased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The tendency for blood pressure to increase with age in westernised societies may depend on environmental and behavioural factors such as diet, stress, and inactivity. Little is known regarding the characteristics of elderly persons who do not exercise. regularly, but generally speaking, our population tends to decrease exercising with increasing age. This lack of knowledge limits the design and marketing of exercise programs to persons who could benefit from regular exercise...

To date, there is a scant amount of research on the long-term benefits of exercise training for individuals with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The purpose of this study was to evaluate standardized outcomes of a six-month maintenance pulmonary rehabilitation program to determine maintenance of functional capacity. Twenty-three subjects (sixteen men, seven women) diagnosed with clinical COPD ages 30-82 (65 + 12 years) participated in the retrospective study. The subjects were referred to an eight-week comprehensive pulmonary rehabilitation program after which upon twelve subjects continued onto a maintenance program. Eleven subjects chose not to participate in the maintenance program and were given a home exercise program and were encouraged to remain active. Hemodynamic, functional, and educational measures were taken prior to entry, upon completion of the hospital program, and again six-months post-program. Outcome tests were standardized using the Indiana Society of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation Outcomes Manual. Significant differences were found between the maintenance and non-maintenance groups for systolic blood pressure in resting, exercise, and recovery measures at six monthsreevaluation. Differences in oxygen saturation were also found to reach significance between the two groups during recovery from the six-minute walk test. Interestingly, duration of exercise was found to be statistically significant between the two groups as well as emergency room visits and physician visits within the last six months. The maintenance group tended to have fewer emergency room and physician visits in addition to having self-reported higher durations of exercise. In conclusion, maintenance pulmonary rehabilitation programs have been shown to maintain physical activity levels for COPD patients and as a result, fewer quality of life consequences specifically the number of hospital admissions and emergency room visits. / School of Physical Education