京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(理学) / 乙第13323号 / 論理博第1570号 / 新制||理||1663(附属図書館) / 京都大学理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 伊谷 原一, 教授 平田 聡, 教授 幸島 司郎 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, Johannesburg, South Africa 2017 / Concerns exist over the continual decline of marula trees (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) as a result of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact and a lack of recruitment and regeneration. One strategy of protecting adult marula trees is the usage of elephant mitigation methods. This study took place in Jejane Private Nature Reserve (JPNR), a protected area which recently opened up to the Greater Kruger National Park and had not had elephants in over 100 years. The aim of the study was to investigate the changes to the marula population structure in JPNR three years after the migration of elephants to the area due to fence removal, and to test whether African honeybees (Apis mellifera subsp. scutellata) could be used as a mitigation method for elephant impact on marula trees. A previous size-class survey had been done on a sample of JPNR’s marula population in 2009, prior to the fence removal in 2013. A resurvey of these trees was used to assess the elephant-induced impact and mortality levels on the marula trees and to compare these levels to previously recorded impact and mortality levels on marula trees in the Kruger National Park (KNP). Marula seed predation levels and seedling recruitment were also assessed to address recruitment concerns. The resurveyed marula population had declined by 23.8% post-elephant migration, with the highest annual mortality rates (AMR) and impact scores recorded for trees in the 5 - 11 m height classes. Impact scores on marula trees in JPNR were higher than impact scores recorded on KNP marula trees. Only two marula seedlings were found across all transects, with evidence of high seed predation on marula endocarps. JPNR displayed an adult-dominated marula population with a lack of regeneration, possibly due to a lack of fire which has increased available shelter for seed predators such as small mammals. African honeybees were then used to investigate their effectiveness as an elephant mitigation method and to compare this method against wire-netting (a method experimentally used to prevent ring-barking by elephants). Fifty active beehives were hung from 50 marula trees, with another 50 dummy (inactive) beehives hung from branches on the opposite ends of each beehive tree’s main stem. Fifty additional marula trees were wire-netted and a further 50 were used as control trees. Elephant impact on all 150 trees was measured prior to the addition of treatments and post-treatment addition for nine months. 54% of the control trees received some form of elephant impact, in comparison to 28% of the wire-netted trees and only 2% of the beehive trees. Wire-netting protected marula trees against bark-stripping, but did not prevent elephants from breaking branches. Beehives proved highly efficient at mitigating all forms of elephant impact. The financial cost and maintenance required for the beehive mitigation method is greater than that of wire- netting, but the beehives can provide honey and pollination services as an additional benefit. The results of this study illustrate that African honeybees can be used as an effective non-lethal mitigation method for elephant impact on marula trees and are a viable strategy to reduce human-elephant conflict in South Africa’s protected areas. / MT 2017

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of SCience University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg for the Degree of Master of Science / This study of the impact of elephants, Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach), in private reserves ln South Africa's lowveld region aimed to determine the sizes and species of woody plants most often affected by elephants and the proportion and severity of elephant impact on the marula tree Sclerocarya birrea. The study was conducted in three parts: vegetation quadrats in areas where elephants had been foraging, direct observation of the feeding behaviour of hand-raised elephants, and transects to sample S. birrea across the study areas. To distinguish preferences, the frequency of elephant impact on each species was compared with the frequency with which it was encountered by the elephants. In the vegetation quadrats, I found that uprooting and leaf stripping were infrequent in all sizes of stems, Main stem breakage affected stems lese than 30 cm in diameter whereas branch breakage and bark stripping increased with increasing size. Favoured species were Combretum collinum, Acacia gerrardii, Albizia harveyl sclerocarya birrea, Dalbergia metenoxyton, and Pterocarpus rotundifolius. Notable among neglected species were Acacia toriifis, Tettnmelle prunioides, and Terminalia sericea which are favoured food items for elephants elsewhere. Other common species which were not selected by elephants were Acacia exuvielis, Cassine transvaalensis, Ehretia emoene, Euclea netalensis and Securinega virosa. Behavioural observation revealed that hand-raised elephants favoured eating Sclerocarya birrea, Combretum epiculeium, and Acacla nigrescens. The elephants stripped bark from A. nigrescens and S. birrea. Assessment of rnarula trees revealed that elephant impact killed fewer than 2% of stems during the preceding season. Fewer than 24% of trees had current season breakage or bark removal. Main stem breakage Was found in stems smaller than 40 ern in diameter. Ring barking was concentrated on the larger size classes, while the smaller size classes escaped any detectable form of elephant impact. / Andrew Chakane 2018

The current study contributes to the science of biology in that it describes different methods of measuring stress in animals and distinguishes between different types of stress that animals are exposed to. The main aim of this type of research is to obtain as much information as possible on what more specifically elephants require from their environment in order to create a more suitable habitat under conditions that vary considerably from the environment in which the elephant evolved in. Two types of possible stress for elephants on small reserves were investigated: social stress and stress caused by direct human disturbances (for example tourists on game drive vehicles in fenced reserves without wilderness areas). The study group of elephants which were introduced to the study reserve ten years earlier as a group of unrelated juveniles from culling operations differed significantly according to social role play and behaviour from normal elephant societies as described by literature. None of the adult elephants from the study group initiated change of activity more than the other adult elephants on the reserve and although one of the female cows was dominant over all the other adult female cows she was dominated by the twenty-year-old bull on the reserve. The twenty-year-old bull was with the cowherd for most of the time and was aggressive towards other cowherd members when present. All the stress parameters used to monitor the influence of direct human disturbances also changed significantly in the presence and absence of game drive vehicles in the elephant's environment. The group of elephants moved more and clustered together more, individual elephants showed more behaviours associated with stress and vocalized more and adult female elephants secreted more from their temporal glands in the presence of game drive vehicles compared to periods when game drive vehicles were absent. Stress hormone metabolite levels in the dung of elephant differed significantly among individuals being highest for the twenty-year-old bull on the reserve. One section area on the reserve with the highest load of human activity also produced the highest levels of stress for elephants when group mobility, group spacing and faecal stress hormone metabolite levels were used as stress parameters. Social stress for the study group of elephants may have enhanced stress response of elephants towards direct human disturbances. Small fenced reserves hosting elephants should monit.or and control game drive vehicle activity around elephants and should consider expanding their property in order to first of all provide wilderness areas to where animals can escape to when stressed by direct human disturbances and secondly to be able to introduce older female and male elephants to control and lead young animals if not present. Implementation of stress monitoring programs as part of the elephant management plan of a reserve may reduce and possibly prevent any future incidences of aggression from elephants towards humans and other species. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2004.

"A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Georgia Southern University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science." Title from PDF of title page (Georgia Southern University, viewed on June 19, 2010). Bruce A. Schulte, major professor; Lissa M. Leege, J. Michelle Cawthorn, committee members. Electronic version approved: December 2009. Includes bibliographical references (p.76-78).

This study assesses elephant induced damage and mortality of baobab and common star-chestnut trees in the northern Kruger National Park. Comparisons are made between the populations north and south of the Luvuvhu River. The density, population size and age structure are estimated. The population structure of neither species has been shaped by elephant utilisation. While the baobab population has a healthy age distribution, that of the star-chestnut population shows that recruitment has declined in recent decades. Utilisation has been found to be higher in the south as a result of higher elephant densities, although recently damage has been greater in the north. Damage increases with tree size. The mortality of baobabs is lower than in other areas where elephants and baobabs co-exist. Elephants are not playing a significant role in mortality of either tree species and management of factors other than elephant is required to improve regeneration rates of these species. / Dissertation (MSc (Wildlife Management))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Animal and Wildlife Sciences / unrestricted

Elephants, as megaherbivores, are known to have extensive impacts on vegetation, especially in enclosed areas. This raises the issue that elephants in enclosed areas may become limited by resource availability. Resource limitation is generally expressed via density dependence, but elephants, due to their slow demography, may not be affected by initial changes in resource availability. This highlights the need for a more sensitive measure of resource limitation to allow for the detection of energy stress within a population before changes in vital rates occur. This study investigated visual changes in elephant body condition in relation to resource availability in a number of Eastern Cape reserves to assess whether body condition could be used to detect life stages, as well as seasons and sites which may be resource limited. Elephant life stages were divided into energy stressed (newly weaned calves, lactating females, and old females) and non-energy stressed classes (sub-adults and non-lactating females) to determine whether energy stressed life stages were more vulnerable to resource limitation. In the AENP it was found that lactating and old females exhibited significantly poorer body condition than non-energy stressed individuals, but that weaned calves had body conditions similar to non-energy stressed individuals. Comparisons between seasons revealed that all life stages exhibited better condition in winter than summer or spring, with lactating females showing little recovery of condition over time. Seasonal body conditions were correlated with rainfall recorded in the Addo Elephant National Park. Comparisons of elephant body condition between sites (n = 6) revealed that body condition varied across sites, with poorer body condition associated with areas of higher elephant density and low rainfall during the study period. Comparisons with faecal dietary quality data both between sites and seasons indicated that body condition also responded to changes in the availability of protein and neutral detergent fibre (NDF) of plant resources, with higher protein and lower values associated with better condition. Based on condition estimates of elephants occurring in the Addo Main Camp, it was established that this population is experiencing nutritional stress, with energy stressed individuals exhibiting the lowest body conditions. This was supported by dietary quality measures. Our findings suggest that elephant body condition is a good measure for detecting resource limitation, both within populations and between seasons, and that elephant body condition respond to relatively small changes in resource conditions, thus making it an effective measure for the detection of nutritional stress. Additionally, our findings show that energy stressed individuals, particularly lactating and old females are more vulnerable to resource limitation. This demonstrates the importance of monitoring these life stages for the detection of density dependence within populations. Finally, our data suggest that threshold values of faecal dietary quality may exist at which body condition within a population begins to deteriorate, making it possible to determine the condition of a population through values obtained in faecal samples.

Compromised welfare and wellbeing of elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) in captive facilities are significant and global problems. The period between birth and two years old is crucial for calf survival and social and environmental learning. Behaviour and developmental processes among captive elephant calves in these first years were compared with those seen in wild calves. Wild elephants calves develop within a complex, varied social context and provide one reference for normal patterns of development. Such comparisons enable insights into welfare at captive facilities. Eleven captive elephant calves born at three UK facilities were studied from birth to 18 months (AsianN=6; AfricanN=5). Older calves (AsianN=2; AfricanN=2) were also sampled up to 3.5 years; making a total of 15 calves studied from 2009 to 2014. Due to the small sample size, the 11 younger calves were also discussed as individual case studies. By 2017, only two of these case study calves were both alive and not orphaned. Three additional calves (AsianN=1; AfricanN=2) died on their day of birth and were not sampled. This small sample highlights the ongoing lack of self-sustaining populations of captive elephants. This thesis collated systematic behavioural observations on captive calves across 373 days (483.5hrs). Calf maintenance activities (feeding, resting, moving), associations with mother and others, interactions and calf play were compared with behavioural observations of wild AsianN=101 (74hrs, Uda Walawe, Sri Lanka) and wild AfricanN=130 (252hrs, Amboseli, Kenya) calves from ~birth to five yrs. Mothers’ (captive: AsianN=4; AfricanN=4; wild: AsianN=90; AfricanN=105) activities were also recorded to explore synchrony with calves. Captive calves raised by their mothers had similar activity budgets to those seen in the wild. Expected age-related declines in suckling were found in captivity. However, captive calves were more independent than wild calves for their age in distance from mother and spent significantly more time in play. A Decision Tree for whether to breed elephants in captivity was developed; benefits that a calf potentially brings to companions, e.g. multi-generational matrilineal groups, enabling social bonding and reducing abnormal behaviours, were considered against space required for families to grow and divide naturally over time, as well as ensuring that captive-bred males are socially sustained. It was recommended that facilities invest in future enclosure/housing designs which permit: free-access to other elephants; 24hr trickle feeding; juvenile males allowed to stay with their maternal group for longer, encouraging learning opportunities and further retaining age-structure/composition. Conversely, facilities unwilling to house a male or provide appropriate group size/composition are recommended to cease breeding.

Please read the abstract in the 08summary part of this document / Thesis (DPhil (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2006. / Zoology and Entomology / unrestricted

This thesis seeks to investigate the short- and long-term socio-economic impact of the First Punic War on Carthage and its people. It will do so by exploring three parts of the Carthaginian political and socio-economic system during the fourth through the second centuries BCE. The first is its navy, and specifically the costs – in both material and man – of its use. This will be the subject of the first chapter. The second analyses the additional expenditures which the war extracted from Carthage, such as the outlays to recruit, maintain, and provide for the land army. The final chapter focuses on the long-term ramifications of the war, which will be explored by means of an in-depth analysis of the last few battles of the First Punic War from an economic angle.