The spectral polarized radiance distribution provides the most complete description of the light field that can be measured. However, this is a very difficult parameter to measure near the surface because of its large dynamic range, dependence on incoming sky conditions, and waves at the air-sea interface. The measurement of the Stokes vector of the downwelling polarized light field requires the combination of at least four images, all of which must be obtained simultaneously. To achieve this, a new polarimeter (which we call DPOL) has been designed, characterized, calibrated and deployed. The description of the DPOL, its calibrations and characterizations are discussed. The uncertainties in the retrieval of Stokes vector and other derived parameters are also discussed. This instrument is equipped with four fish-eye lenses (180° field of view) with polarizers behind each lens in a different orientation, a coherent optical fiber bundle with 4 arms, a spectral filter changer assembly and a charged coupled-device (CCD) imaging camera. With this system, a single image contains 4 separate fisheye images, each a whole hemisphere of the same scene, each with different polarization information. Using these 4 images and applying appropriate calibration parameters allows us to calculate the four-element Stokes vector and then the total degree of polarization and the angle of plane of polarization of the incoming light field in a hemisphere of desired directions. Under the Office of Naval Research RaDyO (Radiance under a Dynamic Ocean) program, DPOL has been used in the Santa Barbara Channel and Hawaii field experiments. In most cases, data on sky polarization were collected with a separate camera (Sky-Cam) simultaneously with the DPOL. The data and results with these two camera systems in these experiments are presented and are compared. Data on the inherent optical properties of water from the same field experiments collected by collaborators will be shown. Our measurements show that very near the surface, for clear sky conditions, the dominant source of polarization is the refracted sky light. As one progresses in the water column, the polarization due to light scattering by the water increases and polarization due to the water becomes dominant. The dependence of the in-water light field polarization on the sky and surface wave conditions, solar zenith and azimuth angles, the depth of the instrument, the viewing angle, the wavelength of light, the inherent optical properties (IOP’s) of water are discussed.

O uso de processos ópticos não lineares é um dos recursos utilizados na microscopia óptica para a obtenção de imagens tridimensionais (3D), sem destruição, de objetos transparentes. A obtenção de imagens em 3D é um recurso muito importante por permitir uma visualização de objetos com estruturas internas complexas. Existem vários processos ópticos não lineares que são usados em microscopia; por exemplo, geração de segundo harmônico, geração de terceiro harmônico, absorção de dois fótons, fluorescência induzida por absorção de dois fótons, etc. cada qual com suas características próprias, vantagens e desvantagens, etc. Um efeito não linear refrativo de grande importância é a rotação não linear da polarização elíptica (RNLPE), que é uma não linearidade tipo Kerr semelhante ao efeito de auto focalização. Através da RNLPE, é possível determinar a magnitude absoluta da não linearidade local, e com esta característica é possível o desenvolvimento de uma microscopia ainda nunca utilizada. O sinal da RNLPE não é regularmente utilizado para microscopia em parte devido à dificuldade de sua medida. No entanto, recentemente foi desenvolvida uma nova maneira, de determinação precisa e simples da RNLPE com o uso de um polarizador girante e um amplificador sensível à fase dupla. Dessa forma, neste trabalho propomos a prova de conceito de um microscópio simples utilizando o sinal de RNLPE. Implementamos um microscópio óptico baseado na medida da RNLPE utilizando um polarizador girante, um amplificador sensível à fase dupla, componentes de baixo custo e um sistema laser de femtossegundo. Obtivemos imagens de capilares de vidros, esferas de vidros, fibras ópticas e células de cebola com sucesso. / The use of nonlinear optical processes is one approach used in the optical microscopy, to obtain three-dimensional (3D) images, without destruction, of transparent objects. The acquisition of 3D images is an important resource to allow better visualization of those objects with internal complex structures. Various nonlinear optical processes are used in microscopy; for example, second-harmonic generation, third-harmonic generation, two-photon absorption, fluorescence induced by two-photon absorption, etc. which one with particular characteristics, advantage and disadvantage, etc. An interesting refractive nonlinearity, the nonlinear elliptical polarization rotation (NEPR) which is a Kerr nonlinearity similar to self focusing. Through NEPR, it is possible to determine the absolute magnitude of nonlinearity location, and this feature is possible to develop even never used microscopy. The NEPR signal is not regularly used for microscopy due to its difficult measurement. However, recently a new accurate and simple method of measurement NEPR was developed with use of rotating polarizer and a dual-phase lock-in amplifier. In this way, in this work we propose a proof of concept of one simple microscopy using the NEPR signal. We assembled a optical microscopy based on NEPR measurement using a rotating polarizer, a dual phase lock-in, low cost components, and a femtosecond laser system. We have successfully obtained image of glass capillaries, optical fibers, glass beds and onion cells.

O uso de processos ópticos não lineares é um dos recursos utilizados na microscopia óptica para a obtenção de imagens tridimensionais (3D), sem destruição, de objetos transparentes. A obtenção de imagens em 3D é um recurso muito importante por permitir uma visualização de objetos com estruturas internas complexas. Existem vários processos ópticos não lineares que são usados em microscopia; por exemplo, geração de segundo harmônico, geração de terceiro harmônico, absorção de dois fótons, fluorescência induzida por absorção de dois fótons, etc. cada qual com suas características próprias, vantagens e desvantagens, etc. Um efeito não linear refrativo de grande importância é a rotação não linear da polarização elíptica (RNLPE), que é uma não linearidade tipo Kerr semelhante ao efeito de auto focalização. Através da RNLPE, é possível determinar a magnitude absoluta da não linearidade local, e com esta característica é possível o desenvolvimento de uma microscopia ainda nunca utilizada. O sinal da RNLPE não é regularmente utilizado para microscopia em parte devido à dificuldade de sua medida. No entanto, recentemente foi desenvolvida uma nova maneira, de determinação precisa e simples da RNLPE com o uso de um polarizador girante e um amplificador sensível à fase dupla. Dessa forma, neste trabalho propomos a prova de conceito de um microscópio simples utilizando o sinal de RNLPE. Implementamos um microscópio óptico baseado na medida da RNLPE utilizando um polarizador girante, um amplificador sensível à fase dupla, componentes de baixo custo e um sistema laser de femtossegundo. Obtivemos imagens de capilares de vidros, esferas de vidros, fibras ópticas e células de cebola com sucesso. / The use of nonlinear optical processes is one approach used in the optical microscopy, to obtain three-dimensional (3D) images, without destruction, of transparent objects. The acquisition of 3D images is an important resource to allow better visualization of those objects with internal complex structures. Various nonlinear optical processes are used in microscopy; for example, second-harmonic generation, third-harmonic generation, two-photon absorption, fluorescence induced by two-photon absorption, etc. which one with particular characteristics, advantage and disadvantage, etc. An interesting refractive nonlinearity, the nonlinear elliptical polarization rotation (NEPR) which is a Kerr nonlinearity similar to self focusing. Through NEPR, it is possible to determine the absolute magnitude of nonlinearity location, and this feature is possible to develop even never used microscopy. The NEPR signal is not regularly used for microscopy due to its difficult measurement. However, recently a new accurate and simple method of measurement NEPR was developed with use of rotating polarizer and a dual-phase lock-in amplifier. In this way, in this work we propose a proof of concept of one simple microscopy using the NEPR signal. We assembled a optical microscopy based on NEPR measurement using a rotating polarizer, a dual phase lock-in, low cost components, and a femtosecond laser system. We have successfully obtained image of glass capillaries, optical fibers, glass beds and onion cells.

Optical microcavities (OMs) are receiving increasing attention owing to their potential applications ranging from cavity quantum electrodynamics, optical detection to photonic devices. Recently, rolled-up structures have been demonstrated as OMs which have gained considerable attention owing to their excellent customizability. To fully exploit this customizability, asymmetric and topological rolled-up OMs are proposed and investigated in addition to conventional rolled-up OMs in this thesis. By doing so, novel phenomena and applications are demonstrated in OMs. The fabrication of conventional rolled-up OMs is presented in details. Then, dynamic mode tuning by a near-field probe is performed on a conventional rolled-up OM. Next, mode splitting in rolled-up OMs is investigated. The effect of single nanoparticles on mode splitting in a rolled-up OM is studied. Because of a non-synchronized oscillating shift for different azimuthal split modes induced by a single nanoparticle at different positions, the position of the nanoparticle can be determined on the rolled-up OM. Moreover, asymmetric rolled-up OMs are fabricated for the purpose of introducing coupling between spin and orbital angular momenta (SOC) of light into OMs. Elliptically polarized modes are observed due to the SOC of light. Modes with an elliptical polarization can also be modeled as coupling between the linearly polarized TE and TM mode in asymmetric rolled-up OMs. Furthermore, by adding a helical geometry to rolled-up structures, Berry phase of light is introduced into OMs. A -π Berry phase is generated for light in topological rolled-up OMs so that modes have a half-integer number of wavelengths. In order to obtain a deeper understanding for existing rolled-up OMs and to develop the new type of rolled-up OMs, complete theoretical models are also presented in this thesis.

Optical microcavities (OMs) are receiving increasing attention owing to their potential applications ranging from cavity quantum electrodynamics, optical detection to photonic devices. Recently, rolled-up structures have been demonstrated as OMs which have gained considerable attention owing to their excellent customizability. To fully exploit this customizability, asymmetric and topological rolled-up OMs are proposed and investigated in addition to conventional rolled-up OMs in this thesis. By doing so, novel phenomena and applications are demonstrated in OMs. The fabrication of conventional rolled-up OMs is presented in details. Then, dynamic mode tuning by a near-field probe is performed on a conventional rolled-up OM. Next, mode splitting in rolled-up OMs is investigated. The effect of single nanoparticles on mode splitting in a rolled-up OM is studied. Because of a non-synchronized oscillating shift for different azimuthal split modes induced by a single nanoparticle at different positions, the position of the nanoparticle can be determined on the rolled-up OM. Moreover, asymmetric rolled-up OMs are fabricated for the purpose of introducing coupling between spin and orbital angular momenta (SOC) of light into OMs. Elliptically polarized modes are observed due to the SOC of light. Modes with an elliptical polarization can also be modeled as coupling between the linearly polarized TE and TM mode in asymmetric rolled-up OMs. Furthermore, by adding a helical geometry to rolled-up structures, Berry phase of light is introduced into OMs. A -π Berry phase is generated for light in topological rolled-up OMs so that modes have a half-integer number of wavelengths. In order to obtain a deeper understanding for existing rolled-up OMs and to develop the new type of rolled-up OMs, complete theoretical models are also presented in this thesis.

[ES] El propósito de la presente tesis es desarrollar una herramienta informática para la predicción del efecto multipactor tanto en líneas de transmisión coaxiales como en guías circulares. Esta herramienta está pensada para ser complementaria de las de diseño asistido por ordenador Computer-Aided Design (CAD) en el caso de dispositivos de comunicaciones a implementar en estas tecnologías de ondas guiadas. En el caso de guías coaxiales, se desarrollará un modelo numérico para la predicción de los umbrales de potencia del fenómeno de multipactor. Este método ha sido validado con medidas experimentales, así como validado con otros estudios teóricos realizados. En este tipo de guía se ha considerado tres tipos de señal de radio frecuencia (RF), la onda incidente, la onda estacionaria pura y las ondas estacionarias en general (combinación de ondas incidente y reflejada de distintas amplitudes). Así pues, se ha analizado y obtenido los umbrales de potencia para cada una de las diferentes señales consideradas y observado los efectos que se producen. En las guías circulares, se ha demostrado en primer lugar la existencia del fenómeno de multipactor bajo la excitación del modo fundamental de la guía circular TE11. El interés en estas guías se debe al amplio uso en la fabricación de componentes pasivos, tanto en cavidades resonantes como el uso de irises que conectan las cavidades, empleados tanto en aceleradores de partículas como en diferentes subsistemas de comunicaciones en satélites. Por tanto, además de observar la existencia del efecto multipactor hemos calculado una carta de susceptibilidad para dicho fenómeno, inicialmente en el caso de que sólo se transmita una única polarización, en concreto la polarización vertical. Una vez hemos demostrado que el efecto multipactor es posible en estas guías circulares, se ha realizado un estudio teniendo en consideración la coexistencia de las dos polarizaciones del modo fundamental TE11. Para una mejor comprensión del fenómeno, se ha analizado inicialmente para órdenes de multipactor más bajos en función de la excentricidad de la elipse de polarización. Prestando especial atención para el caso de la polarización lineal y circular, aunque también se ha analizado otras combinaciones más generales. / [CA] El propòsit de la present tesi és desenvolupar una eina informàtica per a la predicció de l'efecte multipactor tant en línies de transmissió coaxials com en guies circulars. Aquesta eina està pensada per a ser complementària de les de disseny assistit per ordinador Computer- Aided Design (CAD) en el cas de dispositius de comunicacions a implementar en aquestes tecnologies d'ones guiades. En el cas de guies coaxials, es desenvoluparà un model numèric per a la predicció dels llindars de potència del fenomen de multipactor. Aquest mètode ha sigut validat amb mesures experimentals, així com validat amb altres estudis teòrics realitzats. En aquesta mena de guia s'ha considerat tres tipus de senyal de ràdio freqüència (RF), l'ona incident, l'ona estacionària pura i les ones estacionàries en general (combinació d'ones incident i reflectida de diferents amplituds). Així doncs, s'ha analitzat i obtingut els llindars de potència per a cadascuna dels diferents senyals considerats i observat els efectes que es produeixen. En les guies circulars, s'ha demostrat en primer lloc l'existència del fenomen de multipactor sota l'excitació de la manera fonamental de la guia circular TE11. L'interés en aquestes guies es deu a l'ampli ús en la fabricació de components passius, tant en cavitats ressonants com l'ús d'irises que connecten les cavitats, emprats tant en acceleradors de partícules com en diferents subsistemes de comunicacions en satèllits. Per tant, a més d'observar l'existència de l'efecte multipactor hem calculat una carta de susceptibilitat per a aquest fenomen, inicialment en el cas que només es transmeta una única polarització, en concret la polarització vertical. Una vegada hem demostrat que l'efecte multipactor és possible en aquestes guies circulars, s'ha realitzat un estudi tenint en consideració la coexistència de les dues polaritzacions de la manera fonamental TE11. Per a una millor comprensió del fenomen, s'ha analitzat inicialment per a ordres de multipactor més baixos en funció de l'excentricitat de l'ellipse de polarització. Prestant especial atenció per al cas de la polarització lineal i circular, encara que també s'ha analitzat altres combinacions més generals. / [EN] The main goal of this PhD thesis is to develop a computer tool for the prediction of the multipactor effect, both in coaxial transmission lines and in circular guides. This tool is intended to be complementary to the available Computer-Aided Design (CAD) versions, in particular for the case of communication devices to be implemented in the cited guided wave technologies. In the case of coaxial guides, a numerical model is developed to predict the power thresholds of the multipactor phenomenon. This method has been validated with experimental measurements, as well as with other theoretical studies carried out. In this type of guide, three types of radio frequency (RF) signals have been considered, i.e. the incident wave, the pure standing wave and the standing waves in general (a combination of incident and reflected waves of different amplitudes). Thus, the power thresholds for each of the different signals considered have been analyzed and obtained, and the corresponding effects that occur have been observed. In circular guides, the existence of the multipactor phenomenon under the excitation of the TE11 fundamental mode of the circular guide has been demonstrated first. The interest in these guides is due to their wide use in the manufacture of passive components, both in resonant cavities and within irises that connect the cavities, used both in particle accelerators and in different satellite communications subsystems. Therefore, in addition to observing the existence of the multipactor effect, we have calculated a susceptibility chart for this phenomenon, initially in the case that only a single polarization is transmitted, specifically the vertical polarization. Once we have shown that the multipactor effect is possible in these circular guides, a study has been carried out taking into account the co-existence of the two polarizations of the TE11 fundamental mode. For a better understanding of the phenomenon, it has been initially analyzed for lower multipactor orders as a function of the eccentricity of the polarization ellipse. Special attention has been paid to the case of linear and circular polarization, although other more general combinations have also been analyzed. / This work was supported in part by Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, Spanish Government, under the coordinated Research Project TEC 2007/67630-C03-01 and in part by Generalitat Valenciana (Spain) under Projects IIARC0/2004/20, IIARC0/2004/21 and IIARC0/2004/22. This work has been supported by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Spanish Government, under Research Project TEC2007-67630-C03-01. / Pérez Pastor, AM. (2021). Análisis del efecto multipactor en guías de onda de geometría cilíndrica [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/162975