Dairy production systems are an important global contributor to anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions including methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Due to the role GHG play in climate change, it is important to investigate ways to minimise their global warming potential (GWP) and to maximise the efficiency of dairy production systems. Finding a balance between improving productivity and suppressing the range and quantity of GHG produced in dairy production is crucial in order to maintain sustainability in the future. The Langhill herd is part of a long term genetic x feeding systems study, representative of a range of dairy production systems which may be found in the UK. Two feeding regimes (low forage (LF) and high forage (HF)) were applied to each of two genetic lines (control (C) and select (S) genetic merit for milk fat plus protein) giving four contrasting dairy production systems (LFC, LFS, HFC, HFS). Biological efficiency (production and energetic) and environmental efficiency (GWP) were assessed by way of life cycle analysis (LCA), accounting for dairy system inputs and outputs from off-farm production of imported feeds and fertilisers to raw milk leaving the farm gate over a period of seven years. Calculations were conducted using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) methods, with system specific data implemented where possible. Select genetic line under low forage regime (LFS) had the highest gross production and energetic efficiencies (p<0.001). In LFS, milk yields were 56% higher per cow than the lowest ranked HFC system, representing a difference of around 3500kg per cow. Milk solids yield per kg dry matter intake was 18% higher in LFS compared to HFC. High forage with control genetic line required 17% more net energy intake than LFS to produce each kg of milk solids. LFS allocated the highest proportion of net energy to lactating after accounting for body maintenance (p<0.001). Rate of change in efficiency throughout lactation varied significantly (p<0.001) amongst systems, with loss of efficiency minimised in LFS and greatest in HFC. However, LFS involuntary culling rate was significantly higher than other systems (p<0.001). LFS was the most environmentally efficient system and HFC the least (p<0.001), both per unit productivity and per unit total land use. Implementing low forage regime with select genetic line lowered GWP per kg energy corrected milk (ECM) by 24% compared to HFC (p<0.001). GWP of LFC was around 8% lower per kg ECM than HFS (p<0.001). Methane from enteric fermentation contributed the greatest proportion of overall GWP (46-49%) in all systems. However, key factors in the differences amongst systems were higher off-farm CO2 equivalent emissions under low forage, and higher on-farm N2O emissions under high forage regime. HFC produced 91% more nitrous oxide per kg ECM from animal manures compared to LFS, and 65% more N2O from applied manufactured fertilisers (p<0.001). Conversely GWP associated with off-farm production of imported feeds in LFS was 11% higher than in HFC (p<0.001). In low forage systems high gross emissions were offset by high productivity but this was not the case for the high forage systems. Cows of high genetic merit managed under a Low Forage feeding regime had improved production, energetic and environmental efficiencies. However, issues with animal health and fertility raise questions about long term sustainability of the LFS dairy production system, emphasising the importance of examining trade offs between systems.

Este trabalho foi realizado junto ao NETeF - Núcleo de Engenharia Térmica e Fluídos da EESC/USP e ao Aterro Sanitário de São Carlos - Fazenda Guaporé, e teve como objetivo a quantificação da emissão de biogás através da superfície do aterro sanitário. Desenvolveu-se experimentalmente uma placa de fluxo, para a captura do biogás através da superfície do aterro em pontos distintos, levando-se em consideração a idade do lixo depositado e as diferentes camadas do aterro sanitário. As medidas foram realizadas de duas maneiras, sendo a primeira através de um aparelho de leitura que possui um princípio de detecção do \'CH IND.4\' e do \'CO IND.2\' por célula dupla de comprimento de onda por infravermelho com material de referência GEM 2000, e posteriormente foram utilizadas ampolas gasométricas fabricadas pela Construmaq - São Carlos, que após a captura foram levadas para análise cromatográfica para detecção das porcentagens de \'CH IND.4\' e do \'CO IND.2\'. Estas medidas foram realizadas com uma sazonalidade de um ano. Para uma localização de emissão global, as medidas foram localizadas através de coordenadas geográficas. Os cálculos matemáticos envolveram equações de vazão e também uma projeção do tempo de produção do biogás. Observou-se que as emissões são significativas e que medidas simples de operações em aterros sanitários seriam eficazes. Os valores encontrados das emissões mensuradas de \'CH IND.4\' em 2008 foram de 1.741,41 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, e em 2009 foram de 3.315,88 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, e as emissões mensuradas de \'CO IND.2\' em 2008 foram de 16.915,85 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, e em Julho de 2009 foram de 27.601,30 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano. / This work was developed at the NETeF (Thermal Engeneering and Fluids Group) at EESC/USP, São Carlos, SP, and the local landfill in São Carlos Guaporé Farm, and it had as aim the quantification of the emission biogas through of the landfill surface. It was developed a plaque of flow to capture biogas through the landfill surface in distincts points considering the age of the waste deposited and the different layer of the landfill. The measures were done of two ways, the first through a reading apparatus that has a principle of detection of \'CH IND.4\' and \'CO IND.2\' by double cells of the wave length by infrared with reference material GEM 2000, subsequently were used gasometric ampoule manufactured by Construmaq in São Carlos, that after the capture were taken to chromatographic analysis to detection of \'CH IND.4\' and \'CO IND.2\' percentages. These measures were done with a seasonality of one year. For a global emission location, the measures were located through the geographical coordinates. The mathematical calculation involved outflow equations and a projection of time of the biogas production too. It was observed that the emissions are significants and that the simple measures operating in landfills would be effective. The values found for \'CH IND.4\' emissions measured in 2008 were 1741.41 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, and 2009 were 3315.88 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, and the emissions measured in \'CO IND.2\' in 2008 was 16,915.85 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, and in July 2009 were 27,601.30 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano.

Este trabalho foi realizado junto ao NETeF - Núcleo de Engenharia Térmica e Fluídos da EESC/USP e ao Aterro Sanitário de São Carlos - Fazenda Guaporé, e teve como objetivo a quantificação da emissão de biogás através da superfície do aterro sanitário. Desenvolveu-se experimentalmente uma placa de fluxo, para a captura do biogás através da superfície do aterro em pontos distintos, levando-se em consideração a idade do lixo depositado e as diferentes camadas do aterro sanitário. As medidas foram realizadas de duas maneiras, sendo a primeira através de um aparelho de leitura que possui um princípio de detecção do \'CH IND.4\' e do \'CO IND.2\' por célula dupla de comprimento de onda por infravermelho com material de referência GEM 2000, e posteriormente foram utilizadas ampolas gasométricas fabricadas pela Construmaq - São Carlos, que após a captura foram levadas para análise cromatográfica para detecção das porcentagens de \'CH IND.4\' e do \'CO IND.2\'. Estas medidas foram realizadas com uma sazonalidade de um ano. Para uma localização de emissão global, as medidas foram localizadas através de coordenadas geográficas. Os cálculos matemáticos envolveram equações de vazão e também uma projeção do tempo de produção do biogás. Observou-se que as emissões são significativas e que medidas simples de operações em aterros sanitários seriam eficazes. Os valores encontrados das emissões mensuradas de \'CH IND.4\' em 2008 foram de 1.741,41 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, e em 2009 foram de 3.315,88 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, e as emissões mensuradas de \'CO IND.2\' em 2008 foram de 16.915,85 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, e em Julho de 2009 foram de 27.601,30 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano. / This work was developed at the NETeF (Thermal Engeneering and Fluids Group) at EESC/USP, São Carlos, SP, and the local landfill in São Carlos Guaporé Farm, and it had as aim the quantification of the emission biogas through of the landfill surface. It was developed a plaque of flow to capture biogas through the landfill surface in distincts points considering the age of the waste deposited and the different layer of the landfill. The measures were done of two ways, the first through a reading apparatus that has a principle of detection of \'CH IND.4\' and \'CO IND.2\' by double cells of the wave length by infrared with reference material GEM 2000, subsequently were used gasometric ampoule manufactured by Construmaq in São Carlos, that after the capture were taken to chromatographic analysis to detection of \'CH IND.4\' and \'CO IND.2\' percentages. These measures were done with a seasonality of one year. For a global emission location, the measures were located through the geographical coordinates. The mathematical calculation involved outflow equations and a projection of time of the biogas production too. It was observed that the emissions are significants and that the simple measures operating in landfills would be effective. The values found for \'CH IND.4\' emissions measured in 2008 were 1741.41 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, and 2009 were 3315.88 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, and the emissions measured in \'CO IND.2\' in 2008 was 16,915.85 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano, and in July 2009 were 27,601.30 \'M POT.3\'/\'M POT.2\'.ano.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to compare the latest emission standards for JCB engines that are used in JCB telescopic loaders. The first part of this work is focused on the history of JCB, the development of JCB Loadall telescopic loaders and also deals with issues of emissions, their origin, effects on humans and the atmosphere. In addition, there are listed ways how to reduce emissions, both ways of reducing pollutants by designing the combustion chamber and reducing them by systems such as SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction), DOC (Diesel Oxidation Catalyst), EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) and particulate filters. Emission regulations are included as well. The second part of this work is focused on the actual measurement of the exhaust gas emissions of JCB engines with different technologies for their reduction. The measured values will be further processed and inserted into tables and graphs that will then be compared to each other.

At present, it is difficult and costly to measure directly greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the wastewater treatment system. Application of model will reduce measurement cost and quickly obtain the forecast data set of GHG emissions. This study developed a mathematical model for both steady and dynamic states to calculate GHG (CO2, CH4, and N2O) emissions from wastewater treatment systems for industrial paper processing. These models are constructed based on mass balance equations of species, including substrate balance equations, biomass balance equations for reactors of treatment systems, stoichiometric coefficiences of species in biochemical reactions and biological processes. The obtained equations were solved based on algorithm of Runge-Kutta and the model was programmed by MATLAB. Results of applying the model to calculate GHG emissions from the paper industrial wastewater treatment system at Bai Bang and Tan Mai plants are as follows: total GHG emissions and emission factor are 3,070.3 kgCO2-eq/day, 0.38 kgCO2- eq/m3, respectively for Bai Bang plant (8,000 m3/day) and 7,413.6 kgCO2-eq/day, 0.74 kgCO2- eq/m3, respectively for Tan Mai plant (10,000 m3/day). The research evaluated a number of influencing factors, such as temperature, flow rate of influent, and substrate concentrations, to GHG emissions at the Tan Mai paper plant. / Hiện nay, việc đo đạc trực tiếp phát thải khí nhà kính (KNK) từ hệ thống xử lý nước thải còn khó khăn và tốn kém. Việc áp dụng mô hình sẽ giảm được chi phí đo đạc và nhanh chóng có được bộ số liệu dự báo một cách tương đối về phát thải KNK. Nghiên cứu đã thiết lập được mô hình toán ở trạng thái ổn định và trạng thái không ổn định để tính toán phát thải khí nhà kính (CO2, CH4, N2O) từ hệ thống xử lý nước thải sản xuất giấy. Các mô hình này dựa trên các phương trình cân bằng chất của các cấu tử bao gồm các phương trình cân bằng cơ chất, các phương trình cân bằng sinh khối trong các bể phản ứng và các hệ số tỷ lượng của các chất tham gia các phản ứng sinh hóa. Các phương trình được giải bằng thuật toán Runge-Kutta và mô hình được lập trình trên ngôn ngữ MATLAB. Mô hình được áp dụng tính toán phát thải khí nhà kính từ hệ thống xử lý nước thải tại nhà máy giấy Bãi Bằng và nhà máy giấy Tân Mai, được kết quả như sau: tổng phát thải khí nhà kính (KNK) và hệ số phát thải là 3.070,3 kg CO2-tđ/ngày, 0,38 kg CO2-tđ/m3 tại Nhà máy giấy Bãi Bằng (8.000 m3/ngày) và 7.413,6 kg CO2-tđ/ngày, 0,74 kg CO2-tđ/m3 nhà máy giấy Tân Mai (10.000 m3/ngày). Nghiên cứu đã đánh giá được một số các yếu tố ảnh hưởng như nhiệt độ, lưu lượng nước thải và nồng độ cơ chất dòng vào đến sự phát thải KNK tại nhà máy giấy Tân Mai.