O crescente interesse na avaliação da estereosseletividade na farmacocinética e farmacodinâmica de fármacos quirais, visando estabelecer as vantagens na produção de fármacos estereoquimicamente puros, tem levado ao desenvolvimento de métodos de análises com baixos limites de quantificação, seletividade e reprodutibilidade compatíveis com sua utilização em estudos de disposição cinética. Nesse contexto, um método empregando a cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC) foi desenvolvido para a análise enantiosseletiva da mirtazapina em plasma humano. A mirtazapina foi selecionada para esse estudo por ser um novo antidepressivo, com propriedades farmacocinéticas e farmacodinâmicas estereosseletivas e em razão da carência de metodologia adequada para a quantificação individual dos seus enantiômeros. O procedimento de preparação das amostras envolveu tanto a extração líquido-líquido (LLE) quanto uma nova técnica de microextração em fase líquida empregando fibra cilíndrica microporosa de polipropileno (LPME), ambas usando tolueno como solvente de extração, seguido de análise cromatográfica, com detecção por absorção no UV, em 292 nm. A separação cromatográfica das formas (+)-(S)- e (-)-(R)- mirtazapina foi obtida em uma coluna Chiralpak AD protegida por coluna de guarda CN, usando hexano:etanol (98:2, v/v) + 0,1% de dietilamina como fase móvel. A recuperação média dos enantiômeros da mirtazapina empregando a LLE (96%) foi superior à obtida com a LPME (29%); apesar disso, os limites de quantificação foram muito próximos, isto é, 5,0 ng mL-1 para a LLE e 6,25 ng mL-1 para a LPME. Nos estudos de precisão e exatidão, os coeficientes de variação e erros relativos foram inferiores a 15% para todas as amostras avaliadas, empregando ambas as técnicas. O método de microextração baseado na LPME provou ser mais econômico e menos poluente e tão rápido, sensível e reprodutível quanto a LLE. As duas técnicas de preparação de amostras provaram ser adequadas e compatíveis para sua aplicações em estudos de disposição cinética. / The increased interest in enantioselective pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of chiral drugs, aiming to establish the advantages in the production of estereochemically pure drugs, has led to the development of methods of analysis with low limits of quantification, selectivity and reproducibility, which are suitable to be used in kinetic disposition studies. On this basis, mirtazapine, a new antidepressant with estereoselective pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties but with few suitable methodologies for the separation and quantification of its enantiomers, was selected to evaluate two techniques of sample preparation. The procedure involved a classic liquid-liquid extraction and a new technique of liquid-phase microextraction using microporous polypropylene hollow fiber, both using toluene as extraction solvent. The analyses were carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography using chiral stationary phase and UV detection, at 292 nm. The chromatographic separation of (+)-(S)- e (-)-(R)- mirtazapine was performed on a Chiralpak AD column protected by a CN guard column, using hexane:ethanol (98:2, v/v) + 0.1% diethylamine as mobile phase. The mean recovery of mirtazapine enantiomers using LLE (96%) was higher than LPME (29%); in spite of this, the quantification limits have been very close, i.e, 5.0 ng mL-1 for LLE and 6.25 ng mL-1 for LPME. In precision and accuracy studies, coefficients of variation and relative errors were below 15% for all the evaluated samples in both LLE and LPME techniques. The microextraction method based on LPME proved to be more economic and less pollutant than LLE and as fast, sensible and reproducible as LLE. The two techniques of sample preparation have proved to be suitable for their application in kinetic disposition studies.

Thesis advisor: Amir H. Hoveyda / Chapter 1 Catalytic Enantioselective Addition of Organoaluminum Reagents Catalytic methods involving the enantioselective addition of both commercially available as well as in situ generated organoaluminum reagents are reviewed. An overview of additions to aldehydes, ketones, and imines is provided as well as the difficulties and limitations of such transformations. Furthermore, additions to unsaturation adjacent to a leaving group to form a new stereogenic center are examined. Finally, conjugate addition reactions wherein an organoaluminum reagent is added to an olefin adjacent to a carbonyl or nitro group are discussed. Chapter 2 Synthesis of Quaternary Carbon Stereogenic Centers through Enantioselective Cu-Catalyzed Allylic Substitution with Alkenylaluminum Reagents A method for the formation of 1,4-diene containing quaternary stereogenic centers through catalytic enantioselective allylic substitution is disclosed. The addition of alkyl- and aryl-substituted alkenylaluminum reagents to trisubstituted allylic phosphates is promoted by 0.5–2.5 mol % of a sulfonate-containing bidentate N-heterocyclic carbene–copper complex. Products containing a quaternary stereogenic center as well as a newly formed terminal olefin are obtained in up to 97% yield and 99:1 er with high site selectivity (>98:2 SN2’:SN2). The requisite nucleophiles are generated in situ through hydroalumination of terminal alkynes. The utility of the method is demonstrated through a concise synthesis of natural product bakuchiol. Chapter 3 A Multicomponent Ni-, Zr-, Cu-Catalyzed Strategy for Enantioselective Synthesis of Alkenyl-Substituted Quaternary Carbons Despite the widespread use of conjugate addition in organic synthesis, few reports pertain to the addition of nucleophiles to acyclic systems and none in which the nucleophile is an alkene. Herein, we report the first examples of enantioselective conjugate addition of alkenylmetal reagents to trisubstituted enones to form all-carbon quaternary stereogenic centers. Alkenylaluminum nucleophiles are prepared through a site-selective Ni-catalyzed hydroalumination of terminal alkynes and the requisite E-trisubsituted enones are the products of a regioselective Zr-catalyzed carboalumination/acylation of a terminal alkyne. Products are obtained in up to 97% yield and 99:1 er. A model for enantioselectivity, supported by DFT calculations, is proposed. Chapter 4 Formation of Tertiary Centers through Catalytic Enantioselective Conjugate Addition of Alkenylaluminum Reagents to Acyclic Enones We have developed an enantioselective NHC–Cu catalyzed synthesis of tertiary centers in acyclic systems using in situ generated alkenylaluminum reagents, as current methods typically rely on Rh-catalysis at high temperatures with alkenyl boronic acids in protic solvents. Moreover, most examples include chalcone-derived substrates, which, while more reactive, often preclude further functionalization. With the current method, we are able to couple a variety of alkenyl nucleophiles with α,β-unsaturated ketones. E- or Z-silylalkenylaluminum reagents, derived from hydroalumination of silyl-protected alkynes, lead to products in good yields and high enantioselectivities. Additionally, both the α- and β-alkenylaluminum reagents participate in the reaction. Chapter 5 Development of N-Heterocyclic Carbene–Cu Catalyzed Allylic Substitution of Diboryl Methane to Morita-Baylis-Hillman Derived Allylic Phosphates We have developed a method for the coupling of a geminyl diboron reagent with Morita-Baylis-Hillman derived trisubstituted ester-containing allylic phosphates. With 10 mol % of an in situ generated NHC–Cu complex and 1.5 equivalents of the boron reagent, we are able to form the desired product in high regio- and enantioselectivity with a 2,5-ditert-butyl containing carbene. Simple aryl substituents as well as those containing a halogen or an electron-withdrawing group furnish the desired products in up to 85% yield and 98:2 er. Alkyl-containing substrates are also competent reaction partners, although longer chain aliphatics results in slightly diminished enantioselectivity. We are pursuing the application of this method to the synthesis of α-methylene lactones which can be further functionalized to natural products like tubulin polymerization inhibitor (–)-steganone and glaucoma medication (+)-pilocarpine. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Chemistry.

A risperidona é um medicamento antipsicótico que quando metabolizada da origem a dois metabólitos hidroxilados quirais, a 7-hidroxirisperidona (7-RispOH) e a 9-hidroxirisperidona (9-RispOH). A 9-RispOH apresenta as mesmas propriedades farmacológicas que a risperidona e já é comercializada como fármaco, com o nome genérico de paliperidona. Estudos em humanos mostram que existem diferenças na disposição cinética dos enantiômeros da 9-RispOH, com uma maior prevalência do enantiômero (+)-9-RispOH em plasma. Dessa forma, este trabalho teve como finalidade avaliar a capacidade de algumas espécies de fungos e também de catalisadores de Jacobsen em (bio)transformar enantiosseletivamente a risperidona em seu metabólito ativo 9-RispOH. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido um método de separação para a risperidona e seus metabólitos utilizando cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência quiral. Este método foi então aplicado nos estudos de biotransformação enantiosseletivo e nos estudos de catálise assimétrica. A separação cromatográfica foi realizada empregando a coluna Chiralcel OJ-H e metanol:etanol (50:50, v/v) + 0,2% de trietilamina como fase móvel. A vazão e temperatura utilizadas foram 0,8 mL min-1 e 25oC, respectivamente. Para extração dos analitos do meio de cultura, foi empregada a microextração em fase sólida (SPME) como técnica de preparação de amostra. O processo de SPME foi realizado utilizando uma fibra C18 mergulhando diretamente a fibra na amostra por 30 minutos e dessorvendo a fibra diretamente na fase móvel por 5 minutos. A validação e estudos de biotransformação foram realizados empregando a cromatografia líquida acoplada à espectrometria de massas (LC-MS/MS). O método foi validado e todos os parâmetros encontram-se de acordo com as recomendações da literatura. O estudo de biotransformação foi realizado com diferentes espécies de fungos e somente os fungos do gênero Cunninghamella foram capazes de biotransformar a risperidona em seu metabólito ativo. O fungo Cunninghamella echinulata foi capaz de biotransformar estereosseletivamente a risperidona no seu metabólito ativo (+)-9-RispOH com excesso enantiomérico de 100% e o fungo Cunninghamella elegans foi também capaz de biotransformar estereosseletivamente a risperidona nos dois enantiômeros da 9-RispOH em diferentes proporções. Os estudos preliminares de catálise assimétrica foram realizados empregando a cromatografia líquida e detecção por UV-Vis, injetando diretamente alíquotas no sistema cromatográfico. Esses estudos mostraram que na condição de reação 1:50:50 (em número de mols, catalisador:oxidante:substrato) houve uma catálise assimétrica da risperidona que demonstrou ser enantiosseletiva para o metabólito 7-RispOH (E1). / Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic drug. Its metabolism yields in two hydroxylated chiral metabolites, 7-hydroxyrisperidone (7-RispOH) and 9-hydroxyrisperidone (9-RispOH). The 9-RispOH metabolite presents the same pharmacologic activity of the parent drug risperidone. This led this drug to be marketed as drug under the generic name paliperidone. Studies have shown differences in the kinetic disposition of the 9-RispOH enantiomers with higher prevalence of the (+)-9-RispOH enantiomer in plasma. Thus, this work aimed to evaluate the ability of some species of fungi and Jacobsen catalysts in the enantioselective (bio)transformation of risperidone into its active chiral metabolite 9-RispOH. To accomplish that, it was developed a separation method to analyze risperidone and its metabolites by chiral high-performance liquid chromatography. This method was employed in enantioselective biotransformation studies and in asymmetric catalysis studies. The chromatographic separation was performed on a Chiralcel OJ-H column using methanol:ethanol (50:50, v/v) plus 0.2% triethylamine as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 0.8 mL min-1. The SPME process was performed by immersing directly a C18 probe fiber in the culture medium during 30 min. The analytes were desorbed from the fiber directly in the mobile phase during 5 min. The method validation and the biotransformation studies were performed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The method was completely validated and all parameters were in agreement with the literature recommendations. The biotransformation studies were performed employing different species of fungi and only the Cunninghamella genus was able to biotransform risperidone into its active metabolite. The Cunninghamella echinulata fungus was able to biotransform risperidone into the active metabolite, (+)-9-RispOH, resulting in 100% of enantiomeric excess. The Cunninghamella elegans fungus was also able to biotransform stereoselectively risperidone into (+)- and ()-9-RispOH enantiomers at different rates. Preliminary studies of asymmetric catalysis were performed using high-performance liquid chromatography with UV-Vis detector (HPLC-UV). The aliquots were directly injected in the chromatography system. These studies showed that the reaction with 1:50:50 (catalyst:oxidant:substrate, in number of mols, in this sequence) presented an asymmetric catalysis of risperidone and that showed to be enantioselective to 7-RispOH (E1) metabolite.

The palladium-catalysed asymmetric allylic alkylation is a mild and versatile bond forming reaction between a nucleophile and allylic electrophile. The wide scope of nucleophiles used, and the high regio- and stereoselectivity obtainable renders this transformation an important technique in enantioselective synthesis. The mechanism is known to go via a key palladium π-allyl intermediate, followed by nucleophilic addition occurring at the terminal allylic carbon. Both the formation of the palladium π-allyl, and the nucleophilic addition to generate the alkylated product and palladium(0) proceed with high levels of inversion of stereochemistry, and both provide an opportunity for the induction of stereochemistry. However in the case of ligand controlled nucleophilic addition memory effects have been observed. The epimerisation of the palladium π-allyl before nucleophilic attack is key to achieving high levels of selectivity when racemic starting materials and chiral ligands are employed. Previous work in the Lloyd-Jones group has determined that prolonging the lifetime of the palladium π-allyl species, either by the use of weakly coordinating counter ions or slow addition of the nucleophile reduces this memory effect, however increasing the rate of epimerisation would have a result in a similar effect. One of the mechanisms resulting in the epimerisation of the palladium π-allyl species is mediated by palladium(0), however the details of the mechanism are not well understood. We describe the synthesis of a diastereotopic palladium cyclohexenyl ester and labelled the complex with 108palladium and d3 at the cyclohexenyl ester. Using simultaneous 31P NMR and mass spectrometry, we have acquired strong evidence against mechanisms involving a single electron transfer, as proposed by Stille, of formation of a dinuclear palladium(I) species followed by an inversion event, and we have gained evidence supporting the direct nucleophilic addition of the palladium(0), resulting in inversion of stereochemistry. The differences in rates of nucleophilic attack involving monodentate and bidentate phosphine ligands on both the palladium I-cyclohexenyl ester have also been explored. Throughout the mechanistic investigation, it was noted that the 31P NMR spectroscopy experiment used gave non-quantitative results, and in fact the differences in quantification of the species varied with the spectrometer used. We also describe our investigations into where these differences arise from and an optimum set of parameters for quantitative 31P NMR spectroscopy. The conclusions are also applicable to other heternuclear NMR spectroscopic experiments.

Fluorine atom plays a very important role in pharmaceuticals, agricultural chemicals, and medical imaging and it has become one of the most popular area in organic chemistry. For example, in modern medicinal chemistry introducing fluorine atom could potentially improve absorption, metabolism and potency of drug candidates. As a result, methods that allow the selective and efficient formation of the carbon-fluorine bond are highly desirable. An evolving approach is the utilization of transition-metals to catalyze the nucleophilic substitution of fluoride ion. This thesis described several novel and efficient methods to generate allylic and benzylic C-F bonds using rhodium/iridium catalyst.

The cyathins are a unique group of diterpenoids produced by the birds nest fungi <i>Cyathus helenae</i>, <i>C. africanus</i>, and <i>C. earlei</i>. Several of the cyathins show strong antibiotic activity. More recently, several fungal metabolites with structures closely related to those of the cyathins have been found to be potent inducers of nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis. The structural complexity and the exciting biological activity of the cyathane family of diterpenes have prompted our efforts to develop an efficient and general synthetic approach.<p>To date, there have been seven total syntheses and six partial syntheses of cyathins. Most of these syntheses target allocyathin B2, which does not contain the common 6-7 trans ring fusion or the hydroxyl group within the seven member ring. Modifications of these routes to provide targets with these features have not been demonstrated and may be challenging. We have developed a concise asymmetric synthesis of cyathin A3, based on the enantioselective Diels-Alder reaction of quinone (106) and diene (105). Because the transformations of cyathin A3 into other cyathins are well documented, this synthesis provides a general approach to the cyathane diterpene family. In Section 2.2, the enantioselective Diels-Alder reaction of quinone 106 and diene 105 is presented. This reaction is effectively catalyzed by a carefully prepared Mikami catalyst. It was carried out on a preparative scale to give the chiral building block 108. The absolute configuration of the Diels-Alder adduct 108 was determined by NMR and X-ray analysis.<p>In Sections 2.3-5, the enantioselective total synthesis of (-)-cyathin A3 is described. This approach features the successful oxymercuration ring opening, a newly developed in situ configuration inversion, a much improved intramolecular aldol reaction and a radical cyclization. Now envisioned in our laboratory is the development of a new access to cyathin A4, which is surmised to be possible via the intermediate prepared in this synthesis.

New processes that leads to formation of new carbon-carbon bond (the Michael reaction, the Mannich reaction and alkylation reaction) or carbon-heteroatom bond (á-halogenation, á-hydroxylation and á-amination) on bridged bicyclic ketones such as tropinone and TBON were investigated, utilizing LDA in the deprotonation step. All reactions, in which new carbon-heteroatom bond is formed, were not successful either due to low selectivity and/or yields. In case of new carbon-carbon bond forming processes, careful choice of electrophile (electrophile having the ester group in á-position to leaving group), allows for alkylation of tropinone with moderate yield and good selectivity. Application of new conditions to the aldol reaction of TBON and tropinone (e.g. MgI2 catalyzed aldol reaction), gave new aldol products that were not detected from the lithium enolate chemistry of these ketones. Modification of reaction conditions in case of MgI2 catalyzed aldol reaction provides, in a one pot process, bis-aldol product from TBON in good yield and high selectivity, as a single diastereoisomer. Finally, TBON is used as a suitable scaffold for the synthesis of thiacocaine. The first known synthesis of racemic thiacocaine is presented, via deprotonation of TBON with LDA, as a key step.

The construction of benzylic quaternary stereocentres via the enantioselective copper-catalyzed 1,4-addition of dialkylzinc reagents to Meldrum’s acid acceptors in the presence of a phosphoramidite ligand is reported. Meldrum’s acid acceptors can be easily accessed and numerous derivatives have been prepared to investigate the scope of the enantioselective 1,4-addition. The reaction is tolerant to a wide range of heteroaromatic and functional groups. The significance of substituting the position para, meta, and ortho to the electrophilic centre is also highlighted. Primary and secondary organozinc reagents are shown to be compatible in this reaction. A highly enantioselective synthesis of carboxylic acid derivatives having an -quaternary centre through copper-catalyzed 1,4-addition of dialkylzinc reagents to aryl acetate derivatives is also described. This method employs a commercially available phosphoramidite ligand and readily accessible Meldrum’s acid acceptors. A brief insight into the observed selectivity is also discussed. The significance of this method was established by the expedient preparation of chiral diesters, succinimides, γ-butyrolactones, and isocyanates from highly functionalized benzyl Meldrum’s acids. In addition to 1,4-addition, the enantioselective asymmetric synthesis of benzylic tertiary and quaternary stereogenic centres via 1,6-addition of dialkylzinc reagents to Meldrum’s acid acceptors is outlined. This work represents one of the early examples of 1,6-asymmetric conjugate addition reactions and discussions on the regioselectivity of the process are disclosed. On a different subject matter, the occurrence and persistence of C–H•••X (O, S, Br, Cl, and F) bond in solution using 1H NMR spectroscopy is discussed for a large number of benzyl Meldrum’s acids. The latter are novel and reliable probes for the evaluation of this type of non-classical interactions in solution. The persistence of the C–H•••X bond in solution is demonstrated to be dependent upon structural features present on the aromatic moiety and the benzylic position of the benzyl Meldrum’s acid derivatives. The observations presented highlight the large potential of Meldrum’s acid in developing an understanding of the function and nature of C–H•••X interactions.

The construction of benzylic quaternary stereocentres via the enantioselective copper-catalyzed 1,4-addition of dialkylzinc reagents to Meldrum’s acid acceptors in the presence of a phosphoramidite ligand is reported. Meldrum’s acid acceptors can be easily accessed and numerous derivatives have been prepared to investigate the scope of the enantioselective 1,4-addition. The reaction is tolerant to a wide range of heteroaromatic and functional groups. The significance of substituting the position para, meta, and ortho to the electrophilic centre is also highlighted. Primary and secondary organozinc reagents are shown to be compatible in this reaction. A highly enantioselective synthesis of carboxylic acid derivatives having an -quaternary centre through copper-catalyzed 1,4-addition of dialkylzinc reagents to aryl acetate derivatives is also described. This method employs a commercially available phosphoramidite ligand and readily accessible Meldrum’s acid acceptors. A brief insight into the observed selectivity is also discussed. The significance of this method was established by the expedient preparation of chiral diesters, succinimides, γ-butyrolactones, and isocyanates from highly functionalized benzyl Meldrum’s acids. In addition to 1,4-addition, the enantioselective asymmetric synthesis of benzylic tertiary and quaternary stereogenic centres via 1,6-addition of dialkylzinc reagents to Meldrum’s acid acceptors is outlined. This work represents one of the early examples of 1,6-asymmetric conjugate addition reactions and discussions on the regioselectivity of the process are disclosed. On a different subject matter, the occurrence and persistence of C–H•••X (O, S, Br, Cl, and F) bond in solution using 1H NMR spectroscopy is discussed for a large number of benzyl Meldrum’s acids. The latter are novel and reliable probes for the evaluation of this type of non-classical interactions in solution. The persistence of the C–H•••X bond in solution is demonstrated to be dependent upon structural features present on the aromatic moiety and the benzylic position of the benzyl Meldrum’s acid derivatives. The observations presented highlight the large potential of Meldrum’s acid in developing an understanding of the function and nature of C–H•••X interactions.

The cyathins are a unique group of diterpenoids produced by the birds nest fungi <i>Cyathus helenae</i>, <i>C. africanus</i>, and <i>C. earlei</i>. Several of the cyathins show strong antibiotic activity. More recently, several fungal metabolites with structures closely related to those of the cyathins have been found to be potent inducers of nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis. The structural complexity and the exciting biological activity of the cyathane family of diterpenes have prompted our efforts to develop an efficient and general synthetic approach.<p>To date, there have been seven total syntheses and six partial syntheses of cyathins. Most of these syntheses target allocyathin B2, which does not contain the common 6-7 trans ring fusion or the hydroxyl group within the seven member ring. Modifications of these routes to provide targets with these features have not been demonstrated and may be challenging. We have developed a concise asymmetric synthesis of cyathin A3, based on the enantioselective Diels-Alder reaction of quinone (106) and diene (105). Because the transformations of cyathin A3 into other cyathins are well documented, this synthesis provides a general approach to the cyathane diterpene family. In Section 2.2, the enantioselective Diels-Alder reaction of quinone 106 and diene 105 is presented. This reaction is effectively catalyzed by a carefully prepared Mikami catalyst. It was carried out on a preparative scale to give the chiral building block 108. The absolute configuration of the Diels-Alder adduct 108 was determined by NMR and X-ray analysis.<p>In Sections 2.3-5, the enantioselective total synthesis of (-)-cyathin A3 is described. This approach features the successful oxymercuration ring opening, a newly developed in situ configuration inversion, a much improved intramolecular aldol reaction and a radical cyclization. Now envisioned in our laboratory is the development of a new access to cyathin A4, which is surmised to be possible via the intermediate prepared in this synthesis.