The flavivirus genus is of major concern for world morbidity and mortality and includes viruses causing both encephalitic as well as hemorrhagic diseases. The incidence of Tick-borne encephalitis is increasing in many European countries and several reports have emphasized the expansion of the main vector, Ixodes ricinus. The pattern of vector distribution is also changing in Sweden, which makes it important to set up solid and successful strategies for detection and genetic characterization of novel Swedish TBEV strains. In this study we have generated strategies for detection of broad types of tick-borne flaviviruses in pools of I. ricinus sampled in Sweden. The positive collection on the island of Torö was used to generate a sequence of a complete TBEV genome straight from the arthropod reservoir. This cloned virus was used to construct a self-replicating DNA based sub-genomic TBEV replicon capable of expressing reporter genes. The replicon was used to study the effect of TBEV on neurite outgrowth, which revealed that the MTase domain of NS5 block the formation of the Scribble/Rac1/βPIX protein complex, impairing neurite outgrowth in neuronal growth factor induced PC12 cells. We also demonstrate that TBEV replication is affected by two PDZ binding motifs within NS5 and reveal putative PDZ binding proteins. These interactions might affect cellular pathways and might have a role in flavivirus replication. We also characterize the variable 3´ non-coding region (V3’-NCR) by in silico studies on TBEV. Analysis brings new evidence that V3’-NCR region carries an enhancer element important for different replication/translation dynamics during the viral lifecycle in mammalian and tick cells. We also propose a temperature-sensitive trans-acting riboswitch mechanism; altering the secondary RNA structures of a closed form at lower temperatures and a form open for translation at higher temperatures. This mechanism may explain the low TBEV level observed in sampled ticks. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1969. / eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references.

Dissertation (Ph.D.).--University of Texas Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences at San Antonio, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1944. / Typescript. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves [42-45]).

Chapter 1: Role of JEV NS1 in protective immunity and in immunopathology. Previous studies from our laboratory revealed T cell immunodominance of non structural proteins NS3 and NS1 during natural JEV infections in humans where as the structural protein E, which is a good target for neutralizing antibody response is a poor inducer of T cells. Flavivirus NS1 is also known to induce humoral immune response. Several studies in different flaviviruses have indicated a role for NS1-specific immune responses in protection against flaviviruses. Paradoxically, studies also pointed to the contribution of NS1 in pathology and immune modulation. We screened serum samples from 72 convalescent JE patients for the presence of anti-NS1 antibodies by ELISA and radioimmunoprecipitation and found NS1 reactivity in 45 samples. These antibodies to NS1 are capable of inducing complement mediated cytolysis of cells expressing NS1 on the surface. Additionally, we demonstrated twenty two fold reduction in the infectious virus produced at 48h in SW-13 cells in the presence of human complement and NS1 antiserum compared to control serum, suggesting that complement mediated cytolytic activity of anti NS1 antibody helps the host in controlling the virus propagation. Chapter 2: Comparison of immune responses to JEV structural proteins Capsid and Envelope in human volunteers vaccinated with inactivated JE vaccine and naturally exposed to live JEV. We compared the CMI responses to structural proteins E and C in human volunteers vaccinated with commercially available killed JE vaccine and in humans naturally exposed to live JEV. The results revealed that structural proteins E and C are inherently poor inducers of T cells even in killed vaccine preparation, where there is no competition from immunodominant non structural proteins. Therefore inclusion of nonstructural proteins NS1 and NS3 along with neutralizing antibody inducing envelope should improve memory and efficacy of a JE vaccine. Chapter 3: Construction and testing in the mouse model of experimental recombinant poxvirus vaccines expressing prM, E, NS1, and NS3 of JEV. Guided by the information on immune responses to JEV in the JE endemic human cohort and volunteers vaccinated with killed JE vaccine, we designed experimental vaccines as recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing NS1, NS3, prM, and E proteins of JEV (vNS1NS3prME) or NS1, NS3, prM, and C-terminally truncated E (vNS1NS3prMΔE) and studied the immune responses elicited by these vaccines in mice. Our data showed that a recombinant vaccinia virus expressing prM, ΔE, NS1, and NS3 of JEV is superior to killed JE vaccine in eliciting long lived neutralizing antibodies as well as NS1 and NS3-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) in addition to NS1-specific cytolytic antibodies, resulting in long lasting and enhanced protection from lethal JEV infection in mice. Our results thus identified all B and T cell antigens whose inclusion in a live-vectored vaccine would provide a vaccine with far superior efficacy over the inactivated JE vaccine.

Master of Science / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Dana Vanlandingham / Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus maintained among swine and avian species. In infected pigs, replication of JEV leads to the onset of viremia and the development of neurological and reproductive disease in young and naïve pregnant animals. The high-titer viremia levels associated with JEV infection in pigs, whilst important to the enzootic transmission cycle responsible for viral maintenance, also have human health implications within the zoonotic cycle. Sensitive and specific veterinary diagnostic methods capable of readily detecting JEV infection are critical components of JEV surveillance programs in the Asian Pacific region. In this study, reverse transcriptase-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assays were evaluated for use in veterinary diagnosis of JEV. Our hypotheses for this research project were that RT-qPCR assays with fewer oligonucleotide mismatches between the primers and probes of the assays and JEV genomes will be more sensitive for the diagnosis of JEV infection and that oral shedding of JEV in swine would allow for detection of viral RNA using oral fluids. The sensitivity and specificity of three RT-qPCR assays for the detection of JEV were determined using tissue culture fluids of five representative JEV strains belonging to four endemic genotypes. The first assay (assay #1), targeting the highly conserved NS5 gene and 3UTR regions, provided optimum detection for the current predominant genotype, GI-b. All three assays were highly specific for JEV when tested against other selected flaviviruses in the JEV serocomplex. A rope-based collection method allowed for the simplified collection of oral fluids from three-week-old piglets challenged with endemic JEV strain JE-91. These fluids were then evaluated using RT-qPCR assays for the presence of viral RNA. The results suggest that the shedding of JEV in oral fluids can be readily detected and that non-invasive oral fluid collection can serve as a novel sampling method for the diagnosis and surveillance of JEV in swine.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes viral encephalitis in new born and young adults that is prevalent in different parts of India and other parts of South East Asia with an estimated 6000 deaths per year. JEV is a single stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Flavivirusgenus of the family Flaviviridae. It is a neurotropic virus which infects the central nervous system (CNS). The virus follows a zoonotic life-cycle involving mosquitoes and vertebrates, chiefly pigs and ardeid birds, as amplifying hosts. Humans are dead end hosts. After entry into the host following a mosquito bite, JEV infection leads to acute peripheral leukocytosis in the brain and damage to Blood Brain Barrier (BBB). The exact role of the endothelial cells during CNS infection is still unclear. However, disruption of this endothelial barrier has been shown to be an important step in entry of the virus into the brain. Humoral and cell mediated immune responses during JEV infection have been intensively investigated. Previous studies from our lab have shown the activation of cytotoxic T-cells (CTLs) upon JEV infection. MHC molecules play pivotal role in eliciting both adaptive (T-cells) and innate (NK cells) immune response against viral invasion. Many viruses such as HIV, MCMV, HCMV, AdV and EBV have been found to decrease MHC expression upon infection. On the contrary, flaviviruses like West Nile Virus (WNV) have been found to increase MHC-I and MHC-II expression. More recently, data from our lab has shown that JEV infection can lead to upregulation of mouse non-classical MHC class Ib molecules like Qb1, Qa1 and T-10 along with classical MHC molecules. Non-classical MHC molecules are important components of the innate and adaptive immune systems. Non-classical MHC molecules differ from their classical MHC class I counterparts by their limited polymorphism, restricted tissue distribution and lower levels of cell surface expression. Human classical MHC class I molecules are HLA-A, -B and –C while non-classical MHC Class Ib molecules are HLA-E, -G and –F. HLA-E, the human homologue of the mouse non-classical MHC molecule, Qa-1b has been shown to be the ligand for the inhibitory NK, NKG2A/CD94 and may bridge innate and adaptive immune responses. In this thesis, we have studied the expression of human classical class I molecules HLA-A, -B, -C and the non-classical HLA molecule, HLA-E in immortalized human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMEC), human endothelial like cell line ECV304 (ECV), human glioblastoma cell line U87MG and human foreskin fibroblast cells (HFF). We observed an upregulation of classical HLA molecules and HLA-E mRNA in endothelial and fibroblast cells upon JEV infection. This mRNA increase also resulted in upregulation of cell surface classical HLA molecules and HLA-E in HFF cells but not in both the human endothelial cell lines, ECV and HBMECs. Release of soluble classical HLA molecules upon cytokine treatment has been a long known phenomenon. Recently HLA-E has also been shown to be released as a 37 kDa protein from endothelial cells upon cytokine treatments. Our study suggests that JEV mediated upregulation of classical HLA and HLA-E upregulation leads to release of both Classical HLA molecules and HLA-E as soluble forms in the human endothelial cell lines, ECV and HBMEC. This shedding of sHLA-E from human endothelial cells was found to be mediated by matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) proteolytic activity. MMP-9, a protease implicated in release of sHLA molecules was also found to be upregulated upon JEV infection only in endothelial cell lines but not in HFF cells. Our study provides evidence that the JEV mediated solubilisation of HLA-E could be mediated by MMP-9. Further, we have tried to understand the role of the MAPK pathway and NF-κB pathway in the process of HLA-E solubilisation by using specific inhibitors of these pathways during JEV infection of ECV cells. Our data suggests that release of sHLA-E is dependent on p38 and JNK pathways while ERK 1/2 and NF-κB pathway only had a minor role to play in this process. Treatment of endothelial cells with TNF-α, IL-1β and IFN-γ is known to result in release of sHLA-E. In addition to TNF-α and IFNtreatment, we observed that activating agents like poly (I:C), LPS and PMA also resulted in the shedding of sHLA-E from ECV as well as U87MG but not from HFF cells. Treatment of endothelial cells with IFN-β, a type-I interferon also led to release of sHLA-E. IFN-γ, a type II interferon and TNF-α are known to show additive increase in solubilisation of HLA-E. We studied the interaction between type I interferon, IFN-β and TNF-α with regard to shedding of sHLA- E. Both IFNand TNF, when present together caused an additive increase in the shedding of sHLA-E. These two cytokines were also found to potentiate the HLA-E and MMP-9 mRNA expression. Hence, our data suggest that these two cytokines could be working conjunctly to release HLA-E, when these two cytokines are present together as in the case of virus infection of endothelial cells. HLA-E is known to be a ligand for NKG2A/CD94 inhibitory receptors present on NK and a subset of T cells. Previous reports have suggested that NKG2A/CD94 mediated signaling events could inhibit ERK 1/2 phosphorylation leading to inhibition of NK cell activation. IL-2 mediated ERK 1/2 phosphorylation is known to play a very important role in maintenance and activation of NK cells. We studied the effects of sHLA-E that was released, either by JEV infection or IFN-γ treatment on IL-2 mediated ERK 1/2 phosphorylation in two NK cell lines, Nishi and NKL. The soluble HLA-E that was released upon JEV infection was functionally active since it inhibited IL-2 and PMA induced phosphorylation of ERK 1/2 in NKL and Nishi cells. Virus infected or IFN-γ treated ECV cell culture supernatants containing sHLA-E was also found to partially inhibit IL-2 mediated induction of CD25 molecules on NKL cells. CD25 is a component of the high affinity IL-2 receptor and hence could play an important role in proliferation and activation of NK cells. sHLA-E was also found to inhibit IL-2 induced [3H]-thymidine incorporation suggesting that, similar to cell surface expressed HLA-E, sHLA-E could also inhibit the proliferation and activation of NK cells. In summary, we found that establishment of JEV infection and production of cytokines like IFN-β, TNF-α, IL-6 along with MMP-9 in human endothelial cells. These cytokines may also indirectly lead to the reported damage and leukocyte infiltration across infected and uninfected vicinal endothelial cells. The increased surface expression of HLA-E in fibroblast and release of sHLA and sHLA-E molecules from endothelial cells may have an important immunoregulatory role. HLA-E is an inhibitory ligand for NKG2A/CD94 positive CD8+ T and NK cells. Hence our finding that sHLA-E can inhibit NK cell proliferation suggests an immune evasive strategy by JEV.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus is the causative agent of Japanese encephalitis (JE). The disease affects mostly children and around 30000– 50000 cases of JE and up to 15000 deaths are reported annually. No anti-viral drugs have been discovered against JE so far, but advances in our knowledge of the molecular biology of flaviviruses is propelling flaviviral drug research at an expeditious pace. Since JEV has a small genome which encodes for only ten proteins, there is dearth of potential drug targets. Researchers are now focusing on cellular interactomes, a complex and dynamic molecular biosystem which identifies host proteins which interact with either viral proteins or viral genomes, leading to the generation of an astronomical number of potential drug targets involving common cellular pathways that are required for the life cycle of different viruses. Such studies can pave way for the development of ‘broad-spectrum’, ‘silver-bullet’ anti-viral drugs for the treatment of multiple viral diseases. The cellular interactomes can be studied by Genomics tools such as microarray. Systematic profiling of genes involved in virus infection by RNAi, transcriptome sequencing, microRNA profiling and yeast two-hybrid system has allowed us to assess global gene expression changes providing an unprecedented view on the host-side of the virus–host interactions. Advent of these tools has led to identification of plethora anti-viral genes. For example, over expression of IFN-stimulated gene15 (ISG15) results in inhibition of JEV leading to significant reduction of viral titers. Chemokine profiling of JEV-infected cells by microarray can provide possible therapeutic modalities that can mitigate the morbidity associated with JEV infection. Functional classification of interferon-stimulated genes (ISG) identified using innovative methods have been the stepping stone for identification of many anti-viral genes, among them are few Broadly acting effectors like IRF1, C6orf150, HPSE, RIG-I, MDA5 and IFITM3 and some more targeted antiviral specific like DDX60, IFI44L, IFI6, IFITM2, MAP3K14, MOV10, NAMPT, OASL, RTP4, TREX1 and UNC84B. In this study, we have identified a B16F10 murine melanoma cell line that is resistant to JEV infection. DNA microarray analysis of JEV-susceptible and resistant B16F10 cell lines gave us interesting insights into JEV-induced host gene expression changes. Real time PCR validation of microarray data indicates that a number of virus and interferon inducible genes are expressed constitutively at high levels in this JEV-resistant cell line. Further, several of the mouse genes induced by JEV in B16F10 cell line were also upregulated in JEV-infected mouse brain. To understand the significance of these host gene expression changes, we attempted to generate stable murine cell lines constitutively expressing select JEV-inducible genes and study the JEV infection pattern in these cell lines. One of the JEV-inducible genes encoding thymidylate kinase (Tyki), a mitochondrial protein involved in the sysnthesis of nucleoside diphosphates, when overexpressed in NIH3T3 cells confers resistance to JEV infection as evident from reduced JEV-induced cytopathic effects and significant reduction in viral titer. Since TYKI has two distinct domains: the N-terminal domain with unknown function and the C-terminal domain with the nucleoside monophosphate kinase function, suggest that TYKI may be a bifunctional protein with other biological functions in addition to its UMP-CMP kinase activity. In order to examine whether N-terminal domain is responsible for antiviral activity of the protein, a stable cell line constitutively expressing N-terminal domain of gene was made, but the overexpression of N-terminal domain didn't confer any antiviral immunity. Thus signifying importance of kinase activity in confering antiviral immunity. Our studies indicate for the first time that Tyki may have a role in host resistance to JEV and understanding the mechanism of action Tyki may pave way for novel anti-JEV therapy. Stable cell lines constitutively expressing other JEV-inducible genes (Atf3, Gimap3, Rtp4, Glipr2, Tmem140 and Garg49) couldn't be generated. Therefore, to study the effect of overexpression of these genes on JEV infection, expression vectors encoding these genes were transfected individually to human 293T cells by nucleofection, then infected with JEV and viral titres were examined by plaque assay. Nucleofection was opted as a method of choice since it is the only non-viral method, which transfects DNA directly enter the nucleus. In contrast, other commonly used non-viral transfection methods rely on cell division for the transfer of DNA into the nucleus. Nucleofection of vectors encoding different JEV-inducible genes followed by JEV infection and assay of viral titer led to identification of one more anti-viral gene and three pro-viral genes. Garg49, an interferon and JEV inducible mitochondrial gene was identified as antiviral gene. Further studies led to the identification of GARG49 as a mitochondrial protein. Three genes, Atf3, encoding a cAMP responsive element binding protein family transcription factor, Glipr2, encoding a Glioma related pathogenesis protein and Gimap3, encoding an outer mitochondrial membrane GTPase were identified as pro viral genes. Overexpression of Tmem140, encoding a transmembrane protein and Rtp4, encoding a golgi chaperone did not significantly affect JEV titer. Conclusions: . A JEV-resistant B16F10 murine melanoma cell line was identified and several JEV-inducible genes were found to be expressed constitutively at high levels in this cell line. .We demonstrate for the first time that Tyki/Ump-Cmpk2 encoding a mitochondrial nucleoside monophosphate kinase has an anti-JEV function and the C-terminal domain is essential for anti-viral activity. .Garg49/Ifit3 encodes an interferon and JEV-inducible mitochondrial protein and it has an anti-JEV function. . Activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3), GTPase, IMAP family member 3 (GIMAP3) and GLI pathogenesis-related 2 (GLIPR2) are pro-viral proteins which facilitate virus multiplication resulting in enhanced JEV titer.

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus that causes disease in humans and equines eliciting both an agricultural and public health threat. In humans, the disease typically presents as a febrile illness with common signs of fever and malaise. Four to fourteen percent of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) cases are associated with severe neurological complications due to encephalitis caused by VEEV's propensity to infect the brain. Public health concerns are exacerbated by VEEV's aerosolization capabilities, low infectious dose and affordability to mass produce. These qualities drove interest in the pathogen as a bioweapon by the US and the former Soviet Union during the cold war. As a precautionary response to VEEV's notoriety as a biothreat, the National Institute of Allergies and Infectious Diseases has classified VEEV as a category B priority pathogen, and the Human Health Services and United States Department of Agriculture list live virulent strains of VEEV as a select agent and require the pathogen to be manipulated in highly regulated biosafety level 3 (BSL3) facilities. There are currently no FDA approved vaccines or antivirals to target VEEV or other closely related alphaviruses associated with clinical disease in humans. The research performed in this dissertation aimed to elucidate new antiviral targets and treatments to help bridge gaps in current understanding of alphaviruses. The current market lacks available antibodies for E1 specific isolation. In response, a recombinant VEEV TC-83 was produced with a V5 tag at the C-terminal of the E1 sequence to enable VEEV E1 detection. Sequencing was used to verify V5 insertion in the plasmid and immunoprecipitation was used to verify V5 insertion within the E1 glycoprotein. Replication kinetics experiments verified the virus replicated similarly to the parental VEEV TC-83 strain, while passaging experiments verified the tag was highly stable for up to 10 passages. This research produced a cost-effective and highly efficient means to probe and isolate the E1 glycoprotein without modifying the viability of the virus. Knowledge of host protein interactions with VEEV E1 glycoprotein has been limited, with most E1 research focusing on its fusion capabilities. Utilizing 293-T cells infected with E1-V5 TC-83, co-immunoprecipitation was performed to isolate E1 and associated interactors. A total of 486 host and 5 viral protein interactors of E1 were discovered after normalization to the negative control. The top peptide spectrum matches (PSMs) revealed a number of chaperone proteins and ubiquitin proteins as top interactors of VEEV E1. These results effectively revealed a number of previously unknown alphavirus interactions that can be targeted by antivirals and explored further for implications in viral replication. LC-MS/MS results showed that protein disulfide isomerase family A member 6 (PDIA6) interacted with E1. High PSMs, presence in all 3 replicates, similar cellular localization to E1 and known associations between other viruses and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family members made this protein an optimum target for further analysis. Co-immunoprecipitation and co-localization experiments were used to validate the LC-MS/MS results. Involvement of PDIs in VEEV replication were explored utilizing two known PDI inhibitors, LOC14 and Nitazoxanide. LOC14, a non-FDA approved broad-spectrum PDI inhibitor, showed broad-spectrum alphavirus antiviral potential, decreasing titers of VEEV TC-83, VEEV Trinidad Donkey strain, eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Sindbis (SINV) virus in a dose dependent manner. Nitazoxanide, an FDA approved drug known to inhibit PDIA3, was shown to have minimal toxicity and effectively reduced VEEV TC-83 and EEEV titers at concentrations with 100% cell viability. Time of addition assays, E1 expression time course studies, and early event assays showed PDI inhibition with these drugs effects early viral production events. RNA quantification, confocal microscopy and biotin switch assay experiments show that the drugs also prevented proper folding of the E1 glycoprotein and decreased expression of E1 on the peripheral membrane. With no current treatments for alphaviruses, these data provide an effective broad-spectrum target that affects viral replication at multiple stages in-vitro. Nitazoxanide also presents as a promising, non-toxic drug that could be repurposed to combat a number of clinically relevant alphaviruses. Valosin containing protein (VCP) was also shown to interact with the E1 glycoprotein. Exploration of VCP's interaction with alphavirus E1 has never been explored, yet it was previously shown to be involved in alphavirus replication. Co-localization and co-immunoprecipitation experiments were performed validating the interaction between VCP and E1. siRNA knockdown of VCP in 293-T cells and U87-MG cells showed a significant reduction in VEEV TC-83 titers. The allosteric VCP inhibitor, NMS-873, also reduced VEEV TC-83 titers, but was shown to be less effective against CHIKV, SINV and EEEV, suggesting the NMS-873 mechanism is more selective for VEEV. Mechanism experiments showed that reduction of VCP with NMS-873 inhibits early events of VEEV replication. These results elucidate VCP's association with E1 and show that VCP can be targeted to decrease VEEV viral replication. / Doctor of Philosophy / Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) causes disease in humans, as well as horses, donkeys and other closely related animals. In humans, the virus causes a flu-like disease and sometimes swelling of the brain. This can be associated with symptoms such as light sensitivity, confusion and sometimes coma. Prior to the Cold War, VEEV was researched by the US and previous Soviet Union's militaries in hopes to deploy the virus as a bioweapon. Current treaties prevent active production of such weapons, yet allows for defensive research to continue in preparation for a worst-case scenario. Currently no FDA approved medications or vaccines exist to combat the virus further exacerbating concerns. In order to protect laboratorians and prevent unintentional or intentional introduction of the virus into the community, the virus is only manipulated in highly secure facilities with barriers that separate the virus from personnel and the outside environment. A component of the virus called E1, allows for the virus to be released from a structure, called an endosome, that transports the virus into the cell. Currently, E1 is mostly known for this function, yet our research found that E1 interacts with 486 protein components of the host cell, suggesting a more elaborate role of E1 than previously understood. This list of interactors provides numerous new targets for potential medications to combat VEEV and other closely related viruses. Discovered E1 interactors, protein disulfide isomerase family A member 6 (PDIA6) and valosin containing protein (VCP), were validated through extensive experimentation and their function in viral replication was further explored. Protein disulfide isomerases (PDI), such as PDIA6, play an important role in folding proteins, which are cellular components made of organic building blocks called amino acids. PDIs do so by creating organic pillars, called disulfide bonds, between two cysteine amino acid residues. These disulfide bonds contribute to the 3D shape of the proteins they fold which are essential for the protein's function. E1 of VEEV has a total of eight disulfide bonds within its structure, highlighting that disulfide bonds are likely essential for the protein's structure, and therefore, function. We verified that E1 could not properly fold without PDI function by using two compounds that prevented PDI from forming or breaking disulfide bonds, specifically LOC14 and FDA approved drug nitazoxanide. Cells treated with one of either compound before and after infection with VEEV, were found to produce E1 protein with significantly less disulfide bonds therefore producing less viable virus. Further experiments also showed that the compounds also affected early stages in the virus production cycle. These two mechanisms explain the significant reduction in production of VEEV and related viruses when PDI is inhibited. These results provide a new VEEV drug target, PDIs, as well as two compounds that can potentially be used to combat VEEV and other related viruses that have no current treatment options. Another host interactor, VCP, functions throughout the cell and is known for unfolding of numerous substrates, including proteins. It is involved in numerous cellular functions thus making this interactor a promising target for drug treatment. Cells with reduced VCP function were shown to produce less progeny VEEV. Cells treated with NMS-873, a compound that reduces VCP function was also shown to reduce VEEV production. NMS-863 inhibition of VCP was shown to effect early events in VEEV replication. These results further emphasize the E1 interactors discovered are invaluable novel targets for VEEV drug treatment.

Ticks are important vectors of a wide variety of pathogens including protozoa, bacteria and viruses. Many of the viruses transmitted by ticks are of medical or veterinary importance including tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and Crimean- Congo hemorrhagic fever virus causing disease in humans, and African swine fever virus and Nairobi sheep disease virus affecting livestock. Although several studies have elucidated tick antimicrobial mechanisms including cellular immune responses such as nodulation, encapsulation and phagocytosis and humoral immune responses such as the JAK/STAT pathway, complement-like proteins, antimicrobial peptides, lectin like pattern-recognition molecules and lysozymes, very little is known about the innate immune response of ticks towards viral infection. This study therefore aimed to identify molecules that might be involved in the response of ticks to viral infection. The hypothesis was that TBEV infection leads to changes in the expression of immunity-related transcripts and proteins in Ixodes spp. tick cells and that at least some of these might be antiviral. Ixodes scapularis-derived cell lines IDE8 and ISE6 were chosen since I. scapularis is currently the only tick species with a sequenced genome and an Ixodes ricinus-derived cell line, IRE/CTVM19, was used because I. ricinus is the natural vector of TBEV. Basic parameters required to study the responses of tick cells to infection were determined, including levels of virus infection, kinetics of virus replication and production, formation of replication complexes and uptake of dsRNA or siRNA. The cell lines IDE8, ISE6 and IRE/CTVM19 were infected with either of two tick-borne flaviviruses, TBEV and Langat virus (LGTV), or with the mosquito-borne alphavirus Semliki Forest virus (SFV). Infection was characterised using techniques including plaque assay, luciferase assay, immunostaining and conventional, confocal and electron microscopy. Two time points for transcriptomics and proteomics analysis of TBEVinfected IDE8 and IRE/CTVM19 cells were selected: day 2 post-infection (p.i.) when virus production was increasing and day 6 p.i. when virus production was decreasing. RNA and protein were isolated from TBEV-infected and mock-infected tick cells at days 2 and 6 p.i. and RNA-Seq and mass spectrometric technologies were used to identify changes in, respectively, transcript and protein abundance. Differential expression of transcripts was determined using the data analysis package DESeq resulting in a total of 43 statistically significantly differentially expressed transcripts in IDE8 cells and 83 in IRE/CTVM19 cells, while differential protein representation using Χ2 test statistics with Bonferroni correction in IDEG6 software resulted in 76 differentially represented proteins in IDE8 cells and 129 in IRE/CTVM19 cells. These included transcripts and proteins which could affect stages of the virus infection, including virus entry, replication, maturation and protein trafficking, and also innate immune responses such as phagocytosis, RNA interference (RNAi), the complement system, the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, cell stress and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response. After verification of sequencing data by qRT-PCR, the ability of several of the identified transcripts or proteins to affect virus infection was determined by knockdown experiments in IDE8 and IRE/CTVM19 cells using wild type LGTV, LGTV replicons or TBEV replicons. Knockdown of genes encoding proteins including the ER chaperone gp96 and the heat-shock protein HSP90 resulted in increased virus production in both cell lines, hinting at an antiviral role. In contrast, knockdown of calreticulin, another ER chaperone, resulted in a decrease in virus production in IRE/CTVM19 cells but not in IDE8 cells, implying a requirement for virus production. This functional genomics approach has identified possible novel genes/proteins involved in the interaction between flaviviruses and tick cells and also revealed that there might be antiviral innate immune pathways present in ticks additional to the exogenous RNAi pathway.