<p> This qualitative case study explored the teacher&rsquo;s experiences, attitudes, beliefs and perceptions of teaching content-based classes in tandem with English. This study included K-12 Arabic speaking, English Language Learners (ELLs) among the English-only context at 5 international private schools in Saudi Arabia. Second language acquisition (SLA) was examined through the lens of an English-only context that has long been debated as the preferred learning environment for ELLs. This study was concerned with understanding how teachers form their pedagogical attitudes, beliefs and perceptions towards the use of a student&rsquo;s first language (L1) to facilitate the learning of a student&rsquo;s second language (L2) within a monolingual teaching environment for content area instruction in K-12 classes. The study&rsquo;s findings revealed the views of 17 teachers&rsquo; perceptions and how their attitudes and beliefs have influenced SLA. Additionally to filing the gap in the literature, this case study found that teachers preferred to use English-only in their classrooms, however; there was a need for the teacher to use Arabic translation when teaching ELLs. The student&rsquo;s L1 was needed to facilitate the student&rsquo;s L2 learning. The study recognized that teachers supported the efficacy of English L2 acquisition strategies and there were variant amounts of L1 used by the teacher and between the learners to facilitate the learning of L2. The study showed the teacher&rsquo;s L2 effectiveness across the curriculum and what had minimal and maximum impact on their students when learning L2. Teachers were sensitive to their student&rsquo;s sociocultural needs and used cooperative learning to facilitate L1 translation. This case study included 17 teacher interviews, classroom observations and documents as the data collection method. Recommendations for further research include a similar study to be conducted among the pre-school and pre-kindergarten populations.</p>

<p> English learners typically score below their English o0nly peers on state and national standardized tests, demonstrating that there is a need to explore possibilities as to why this achievement gap is widening. Applying a conceptual framework stemming from the concepts of social and cultural capital from sociologist Bourdieu, this study examines the language as social and cultural capital of English learners at a school site and its influence on student engagement. This qualitative study used narrative inquiry and a semi structured interview protocol to gain insights from teachers, students and district personnel. Although the findings in this study are not generalizable, it suggest language influences a student&rsquo;s ability to be engaged in the classroom through access, relationships, trust, identity, success, and cultural diversity and awareness in this particular school site found in a local Southern California school district. Having a deeper understanding of how language, social and cultural capital influence engagement will assist educators in planning instructional lessons that are academically rigorous and relevant to the student in order to provide access and upward social mobility to English learner students. </p>

<p> The last decade has witnessed growing awareness and use of paired speaking tasks in the field of second language (L2) assessment, resulting in calls for more studies on interactional competence (Ducasse &amp; Brown, 2009; May, 2010; Taylor &amp; Wigglesworth, 2009). This dissertation study aimed to account for the nature of peer-peer interaction in L2 paired speaking tasks through the perspectives of second language acquisition and task-based language assessment. This has been accomplished by addressing the following issues: first, understanding the construct of interactional competence at both macro- (i.e., overall interaction quality determined by degree of collaboration and task completion) and micro-levels (i.e., particular features in interactions); second, evaluating rating scales for interactional competence in terms of reliability and validity; third, examining the extent to which the distribution of interaction features predicted interaction scores; and lastly, investigating how task type affected interaction performance regarding interaction features, interaction patterns, and interaction scores. In total, 70 language learners in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) program were paired and responded to four 2.5-minute interaction tasks. All interactions were scored on overall interaction quality by four raters using a new scale developed by the researcher and two existing scales. Then each individual interlocutor&rsquo;s performance was coded for interaction features ranging from interactive listening to interactional management features. The data obtained were analyzed to answer the following questions: (1) Were hypothesized relations among interaction features supported empirically? (2) Was the new scale a reliable and valid measure? and (3) Did interaction features account for variance in interactional competence scores? Results helped refine understanding of interactional competence. First, the results of confirmatory factor analysis did not support the original model of interactive listening and interactional management features. Instead, interaction performance was better characterized by different communication functions of argument, discussion, support, and connection. Second, compared with the two existing scales, the new scale was a more reliable and valid measure. Third, features of topic connection, turn interruption, and turn overlapping were important indicators to predict scores generated by the new scale. Findings have implications for second language acquisition, L2 speaking assessment, and instruction. First, interactional competence could be operationalized in aspects of interaction features and patterns. Second, speaking assessment should include paired speaking tasks to reflect test-takers&rsquo; interactional speaking abilities. In addition, interaction rating scales should measure levels of interactions and task completeness status. Rater calibration is needed to ensure that consistent judgments can be delivered. Last, teachers can direct students&rsquo; attention to different interaction patterns and specific features, which characterize effective conversations. In summary, findings provide further understanding of interactional competence and offer insights into how to measure interaction competence in language classrooms.</p>

<p>This study investigates features of high-level academic writing in English with the aim of understanding the development of L2 English learners&rsquo; academic writing skills as they follow a course of study in an English-speaking country. The study focuses on L2 writers&rsquo; text quality and use of clause subordinators as a measure of writing complexity. The typology of the writers&rsquo; L1s provides the organizational framework for the study, with three language typology groupings determined by a writer&rsquo;s L1 word order tendency: (1) configurational languages, (2) nonconfigurational languages, and (3) Asian languages. </p><p> The corpus analyzed included written work collected at the beginning, the middle, and the end of a semester from 19 international graduate-level students enrolled in a semester-long academic writing course specifically for international students. The principal features examined in the corpus of texts collected were writers&rsquo; use and frequency of subordinators, and text comprehensibility. To provide a comparative reference for the academic writing course findings, a separate dataset composed of 240 TOEFL^&reg;iBT independent essays was also examined for evidence of similar features. </p><p> The results revealed that (1) writers from configurationally different L1s write texts in English that are significantly different in quality and complexity, and; (2) the analysis of the significant differences between groups&mdash;sentence length, sentence complexity, comprehensibility, total subordinator frequency, and specific subordinator usage&mdash;shows the groups are distinct in their text construction and use of subordination, and that the configurational group&rsquo;s texts are most different from other groups. Writers&rsquo; self-reflections on the progression of their writing skills during the study abroad context add insights to the quantitative findings. The study&rsquo;s findings suggest directions for future research in L2 writing development, inform EFL pedagogy and L2 English learners&rsquo; preparation for study abroad, and underscore the importance of colleges and universities providing comprehensive writing support to incoming international students. </p>

<p> This study emphasized the instructional input and student uptake of high school students&rsquo; EFL writing process in Taiwan. A multiple-draft writing approach was utilized to meet students&rsquo; need for writing preparation for college admission tests, the General Scholastic Ability Test (GSAT) and the Department Required Test (DRT). Thirty-six 10^th grade students, whose English proficiency ranged from low to intermediate, participated in this study along with their EFL teacher. Students&rsquo; essays were assessed by two high school teachers using five criteria: <i>content, organization, grammar/syntax, vocabulary/spelling, and format awareness,</i> as released by the College Entrance Exam Center in Taiwan. Students wrote two themed essays during the implementation of the multiple-draft approach and two timed essays; one before the implementation of the writing approach (pre-test), and the other after completion of the thirteen writing sessions (posttest). Paired-sample t-tests measured the difference between the pre- and post-test. Results indicated a significant difference in one category, <i>format awareness.</i> A grounded theory approach was used to analyze interview transcript data, the field notes and peer review responses. The results indicate that students felt that the time factor had little to do with their timed writing performance; instead, confusion regarding basic English grammar, insufficient experience with English essay writing, the uncertainty of how to apply vocabulary and doubts regarding meaning of vocabulary were obstacles preventing uptake in their writing process. Students highly valued the input via personalized feedback from the teacher participant and the researcher. Though teacher-student meetings served the purpose of content development and grammar correction, students preferred one-on-one meetings with the teacher. Students benefitted from peer-to-peer discussions and heightened awareness during process writing but doubted the validity of peer review feedback they had received. The teacher participant reported struggling to step out of his teacher-centered approach while attempting to utilize the suggested student-centered instructional approach. Pressured to keep up with the school&rsquo;s strict curriculum and with limited instructional time, he resisted offering basic grammar review based on students&rsquo; observed needs for English basics. These factors mitigated greatly the promised potential of input and uptake in utilizing a process writing approach with EFL high school students.</p><p>

<p> As a result of the expanding interest in the cognitive and social dimensions of language use beyond single sentences, a great number of research studies have been conducted in order to examine nonnative speakers&rsquo; ability to use language appropriately in a social context. Recently, with a growing understanding of the key role pragmatic competence plays in second language development, researchers have also investigated the benefits of direct instruction in helping language learners become aware of the pragmatic conditions governing the uses of grammatical structures. This thesis reports on the design and administration of a study that investigated language learners&rsquo; knowledge of pragmatics and how instruction can help them develop this knowledge in an environment where English is taught as a second language. Specifically, this project had two aims: (1) to observe the relationship between language proficiency and pragmatic competence of learners of English as a Second Language (ESL), and (2) to examine whether instruction was effective in improving those learners&rsquo; pragmatic knowledge. Pragmatic competence was measured quantitatively, through discourse judgment tasks, multiple-choice discourse completion tasks (MDCTs) and written discourse completion tasks (WDCTs) in a pre-, post-, and delayed post-test, designed specifically for this study. The participants in this research, thirty-nine adult ESL learners with a range of proficiency studying in the Intensive English Program (IEP) and in a university-level English course at West Virginia University, first took a language proficiency test and a pre-test on pragmatic knowledge. The participants were then assigned into two groups, experimental and comparison. The experimental group received four hours of direct instruction in five types of speech acts (requests, refusals, apologies, compliments, suggestions) and other aspects of pragmatic knowledge over a period of two weeks, while the comparison group was taught lessons on other topics without intervention during the same amount of time. An immediate post-test on pragmatic knowledge and a delayed post-test were given to both groups. The results showed that language proficiency and pragmatic knowledge were positively correlated with a moderate strength (<i>r</i> = .71, <i>p</i> &lt; .001). Analysis of covariance and further analysis showed that the experimental group significantly outperformed the comparison group in both the post-test and delayed post-test. The experimental group benefited from the instruction, which used a blended methodological approach, and the instructional effect was retained after a one-week delay. The results of this research helped understand the communicative skills and intercultural competence of ESL learners and demonstrated that instruction in the area of pragmatics is not only important but it can be beneficial at all levels of language proficiency. It is hoped that the topics reported and discussed here and the findings may help both English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and ESL teachers gain a better understanding of second language learners&rsquo; pragmatic competence and development through instruction, so that when they incorporate pragmatics instruction into their teaching, they will be in a better position to adapt their practices to facilitate pragmatic development.</p>

<p> This study examines how Chinese philosophical values and rhetorical traditions that contribute to coherence differ from those prevalent in English. It attempts to discover how six Chinese ESL undergraduate participants demonstrate coherence in their persuasive writing, and how their practice of, and views toward coherence in writing change over a semester during which they are exposed to an American college writing classroom.</p><p> Three types of essays were collected for qualitative analysis in this study: a diagnostic departmental pre-test essay at the beginning of the semester, a final essay given as a post-test, and two drafts of a CATW (CUNY Assessment Test in Writing) practice essay that were written for the advanced writing course. In addition, data were also collected from a background questionnaire, a classroom observation, and two rounds of interviews during the course of a semester.</p><p> The study explored the features of coherence at both local (sentence) and global (discourse) levels. The knowledge of cohesion and coherence was employed to investigate how the Chinese learners of English achieved coherence within and beyond the paragraph level. The study discussed how the participants struggled to learn the appropriate use of explicit transitions and patterns of development to create a logical flow of ideas, how their writing generally cohered around one controlling idea throughout the essay, and how they changed their perceptions of coherence in an American university setting. The findings suggest that the Chinese ESL learners' writing quality could be improved in the Western context through coherence-related classroom instruction, revision practice, and teacher-student writing conferences, all aimed at helping them to understand Western notions of coherence while continuing to value their own cultural traditions.</p><p> The study's goal is to help both writing instructors and students; it is hoped that the findings of the study will help instructors to design appropriate writing instruction for such students, as well as helping the students to become familiar with coherence, in the process allowing them to get the most out of their college education and their efforts to improve at writing.</p>

There is no comprehensive model of language test or examination impact and how it might be investigated within educational contexts by a provider of high-stakes examinations, such as an international examinations board. This thesis addresses the development of such a model from the perspective of Cambridge ESOL, a provider of English language tests and examinations in over 100 countries. The starting point for the thesis is a discussion of examinations within educational processes generally and the role that examinations board, such as Cambridge ESOL play within educational systems. The historical context and assessment tradition is an important part of this discussion. In the literature review, the effects and consequences of language tests and examinations are discussed with reference to the better known concept of washback and how impact can be defined as a broader notion operating at both micro and macro levels. This is contextualised within the assessment literature on validity theory and the application of innovation theories within educational systems. Methodologically, the research is based on a meta-analysis which is employed in order to describe and review three impact projects. These three projects were carried out by researchers based in Cambridge to implement an approach to test impact which had emerged during the 1990s as part of the test development and validation procedures adopted by Cambridge ESOL. Based on the analysis, the main outcome and contribution to knowledge is an expanded model of impact designed to provide examination providers with a more effective “theory of action”. When applied within Cambridge ESOL, this model will allow anticipated impacts of the English language examinations to be monitored more effectively and will inform on-going processes of innovation; this will lead to well-motivated improvements in the examinations and the related systems. Wider applications of the model in other assessment contexts are also suggested.