M.A. (Applied Linguistics) / This study seeks to understand the acquisition of English prepositions by second language (L2) speakers of English. Prepositions are notoriously difficult linguistic items to acquire, and the reasons for this are manifold. This study looks into the relationship between the linguistic similarities between prepositions in the first language (L1) and the English prepositions in, on, to and into. The study focuses on two particular groups of L1 speakers: (i) Northern Sotho speakers and (ii) Afrikaans speakers. A group of monolingual English speakers acts as a control group according to which comparisons between L2 and L1 speakers are made. These three groups have been selected based on the manifestations of the selected English prepositions in each language. In Afrikaans, the four prepositions have similar linguistic features to their English counterparts, whereas in Northern Sotho, prepositions have a vastly different linguistic manifestation to English ones. This study therefore seeks to establish whether linguistic similarity in the L1 helps or hinders the acquisition of English prepositions in English as an L2. In order to achieve this aim, 120 participants between the ages of 5;3 (year;month) and 8;11 were selected from 23 primary schools in Gauteng that use English as a language of learning and teaching (LoLT). These participants were then tested in two stages. First, an oral English proficiency test (the Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation) was performed. Second, the participants completed an elicited production procedure designed for the purposes of this research to test their understanding and ability to use the English prepositions under investigation. The process of development of this elicited production procedure involved a pilot study to which the Rasch measurement model was applied. The procedure was then adapted and improved. The Rasch measurement model was also applied to the English proficiency test in order to highlight areas or items within the test that may contain cultural bias in a South African context. The Rasch analysis identified various items within the test that were not appropriate within the South African context and these items were removed from the scoring procedure so as not to influence the results in a culturally-biased way. The results of the English proficiency test were then used to group the participants according to English ability (below average, average and above average). These ability groups form the basis upon which comparisons regarding the results of the preposition test are then made. The comparisons revealed some variance, but no significant differences between the Afrikaans and Northern Sotho speakers. There were, however, significant differences between the Afrikaans and Northern Sotho speakers in terms of their performance on the English proficiency test. The Northern Sotho speakers had more speakers in the below average group of English ability than the Afrikaans group, and fewer in the above average group. Another notable finding is the variation in difficulty when considering the type of preposition being acquired. Prepositions of motion (to and into) were more difficult to understand and produce for participants from both the Afrikaans and Northern Sotho groups. Although there was no significant difference between the groups, the Afrikaans speakers performed slightly better on the preposition test than the Northern Sotho group. Additionally, the errors made by the Afrikaans speakers were less varied than those made by the Northern Sotho speakers. The findings support the hypothesis that linguistic similarity between the L1 and L2 aids in learning English prepositions.

This paper presents an analysis of the errors in the use of prepositions made in written English by Brazilian students.The errors shown here are the basis for explaining the difficulties Brazilian-Portuguese speakers have in selecting the correct prepositions according to the context. This analysis will account for the causes of errors such as interference, false analogies, carelessness, or insufficient knowledge of the English grammar.The data used for this study was collected in three Brazilian schools: a state high school and a private College in Barbacena, Minas Gerais, and a BI-National Center in Rio de Janeiro (Insituto Cultural Brasil-Estados Unidos).A total of 48 compositions were analyzed. Three topics were selected to provide the students a chance to use a great number of prepositions& "A Day in My Life", "People of Rio", and "My Last Trip".The errors encountered were classified according to the possible cause for errors. This classification shows the basic reasons for difficulties in using prepositions in English by Brazilian-Portuguese speakers, which was the first concern of this paper.The final results of this analysis show that interference of the mother tongue, either under the form of pure interference, the form of translation, or the use of other grammatical facts constitutes the greatest factor responsible for errors. The conclusion shows that the high percentage of 59.5 percent of errors is due to pure interference, 18.1 per cent is due to translation, 4.9 per cent to the use of the possessive form 's, and 9.9 per cent to the use of the article. On the whole, 92.4 per cent of the errors are due to some form of interference.Besides these numbers, the final conclusions also show that prepositions cannot be analyzed as isolated units, for the errors were-greatly influenced by other aspects of the target language such as the use of two-word verbs, expressions used with certain prepositions, grammatical facts, and vocabulary influences.

The complexity of English prepositions has always been a challenge for second language (L2) learners (Celce-Muricia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). Cognitive linguists have made a substantial amount of effort of analyzing the semantic representations of the prepositions (Lakoff, 1987; Talmy, 2000; Tyler & Evans, 2003; Lindstromberg, 2010). Schematic drawings, with variation among studies, are proposed to visualize the conceptual representations and to connect the basic spatial senses (e.g., in a box) with the more abstract, metaphorical senses (e.g., in love) of prepositions. Some empirical studies (Tyler, 2012; Tyler, Mueller & Ho, 2010) found positive learning outcomes when L2 learners were taught prepositions with cognitive linguistics methods. Yet, few studies provided step-by-step descriptions of their instructional procedures. Inadequate information of exactly what was going on in these classrooms makes it difficult to replicate or to compare across studies. / The current study is an experimental study that investigates the effects of teaching English prepositions with cognitive linguistics methods in a computer-based tutorial system. Our main research question is to see whether cognitive linguistic approach outperforms traditional explicit instruction. The participants of the present study were 64 Cantonese learners of English, at Secondary 4 level, from a Hong Kong secondary school with English as the medium of instruction. They were randomly assigned to one of the four groups: 1) schema feedback (SF); 2) rule feedback (RF); 3) corrective feedback (CF); and 4) control group (receiving training on English articles). The first three groups received training on three prepositions (in, at, over) through the online interface shown in Figure 1. On each screen they were presented with a picture stimulus and two minimal-pair sentences that only differed on the prepositions (e.g., Ben jumped over the ditch vs. Ben jumped towards the ditch). They were asked to choose the sentence that matched the picture. They were provided with immediate feedback. The SF group (Figure 1) was given the schematic drawing mapped with the sentence as well as a verbal explanation of the mapping. The RF group was given a metalinguistic explanation of the preposition usage with three example sentences. The CF group was informed of whether their choice was correct or wrong. All the four groups went through the same procedure with three sessions: a pretest, training (balanced time across groups), and a posttest. The tests were composed of two parts: a cloze test and a translation test, both at the sentential level. / The findings showed no significant difference in terms of accuracy of performance among the four groups at the pretest. But at the posttest, there was a significant difference between the three preposition training groups and the control group. This finding suggests positive instructional effects of the tutor. Regarding the distinction of feedback, a marginal significant difference was observed among the SF, RF, and CF groups at the posttests and such difference only came from the translation test. That indicates that the amount and the type of information that were provided to the participants did not matter for cloze test but did create superiority effect in the production test, when they were instructed with a minimal-pair paradigm and also with the help of the picture stimuli.[with diagram] / 英語介詞，因其複雜性，對於第二語言（L2）學習者一直是學習上的一個挑戰（Celce-Muricia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999）。認知語言學家一直努力分析介詞的語義表述（Lakoff, 1987; Talmy, 2000; Tyler & Evans, 2003; Lindstromberg, 2010）。有研究提出以不同的圖像模組將概念表述形像化及連接基本的空間意義（例如，in a box）及較抽象的隱喻意義（例如，in love）。一些實證研究（Tyler, 2012; Tyler, Mueller & Ho, 2010）中，發現第二語言學習者以認知語言學的方法學習介詞時，學習成果會較好。然而，很少有研究詳細地描述自己的教學過程，因此資訊的不足令它其難以模仿或比較不同的研究。 / 目前的研究是一個實驗性的研究以探討在電腦系統上以認知語言學的方法教導介詞的效果。主要研究的問題是，究竟認知語言學的方法（圖像模組）能否超越傳統教學方法（給予明確指引）。研究的參加者是64位以廣東話作為母語，在香港中學就讀中四的英語學習者。他們被隨機分配到四個組別中的其中一個組別：1）圖像模組的反饋（SF）;2）規則和例子的反饋（RF）;3）糾正反饋（CF）和4）對照組（接受英語冠詞的訓練）。前三組會透過線上練習（圖1）接受3個介詞（in, at, over）的訓練。每個練習上會有一幅圖片及一組對比句子（兩句句子不同之處只在於介詞，例如Ben jumped over the ditch vs. Ben jumped towards the ditch）。他們需要選擇其中一句句子用以正確描述練習中的圖片而系統亦會即時向他們提供反饋。SF組（圖1）的反饋包括匹配練習中的圖片的圖像模組及對該模組的文字解釋。。RF組的反饋是提供該介詞在文法上的用法及一般規則並同時給予三個相關例句。CF組則只會獲告知他們在練習中的選擇是正確或錯誤。四個組別都會經歷前期測驗，訓練（各組的訓練時間相約）和後期測驗。測驗由兩個部份組成：句子層級上的填充選擇測驗及翻譯測驗。 / 調查結果顯示，四個組別在前期測驗中的表現並沒有顯著的差異。但在後期測驗中，三個有接受介詞訓練的組別和對照組之間有著的顯著的差異。這一發現表明了研究中的電腦導師對教導介詞有正面的影響。而不同反饋組別（SF，RF和CF組）在後期測驗中則有著邊緣顯著差異，而這差異僅來自翻譯測驗。這結果顯示當研究參加者接受對比教學及圖像刺激時，提供予他們的信息數量及種類對理解型的測驗並沒有太大影響；相反，對運用型的測驗則非常顯著的效果。，當他們被指示具有最小配對模式，也與畫面刺激的幫助。[附圖] / Wong, Man Ho Ivy. / Thesis M.Phil. Chinese University of Hong Kong 2015. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 141-160). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on 18, October, 2016). / Wong, Man Ho Ivy. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Numerous linguistic studies have been done to substantiate the importance of prepositions in the English language. However, no normative studies have been done on the acquisition of expressing prepositions. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if there were demonstrable trends which would indicate a need for normative data on the acquisition of twenty-six prepositions tested on the Expressive Preposition Test (EPT). The study set out to determine at what age levels a given percentage of the prepositions were expressively acquired and if the socioeconomic status (SES) of the child’s family would be a determiner as to the age at which the child would expressively use prepositions. The EPT was administered to a total of thirty-six children between the ages of four and nine years. One-half of the children were from families of low SES and one-half were from families of high SES. The results show a high correlation between the age of the children and their ability to express prepositions. Each age group up through the eight-year-olds expressed a progressively higher percentage of the prepositions. A statement of positive correlation between intelligence-SES and EPT-SES was made in that those subjects in the high SES group scored higher on the intelligence quotient and EPT scores. Correlation coefficients indicate a slight correlation between the children’s intelligence quotient which ranged from 86-115 and their ability to express prepositions.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Linguistics and Philosophy, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 203-212). / This dissertation develops a form of relativism in which propositions are treated as sets of world-time-individual triples, in contrast to standard views that treat them as sets of worlds or world-time pairs. This builds on existing proposals for predicates of personal taste such as fun and tasty, and has ties to approaches to de se attitudes involving centered worlds. I develop an accompanying pragmatic view in which the context set is similarly construed as a set of world-time-individual triples. The semantic and pragmatic systems together are used to account for the behavior of predicates of personal taste, epistemic modals, indicative conditionals, and a variety of attitude reports, including control constructions. I also explore ways that this account can help solve puzzles related to Moore's paradox. To give one concrete example, I propose that the proposition expressed by the sentence it might be raining is the set of world-time-individual triples <w,t,x> such that it's compatible with x's knowledge in w at t that it's raining. On the pragmatic side, a speaker is justified in asserting this sentence in a conversation if it is compatible with the speaker's own knowledge that it's raining; by asserting it, though, the speaker is making the stronger proposal to make it common ground that it is compatible with the knowledge of the entire group of conversational participants that it's raining. If this proposal is accepted by the other participants, then the group will have established that their knowledge states are aligned in a particular way. I introduce the core semantic and pragmatic proposals in Chapter 2, focusing on epistemic modals, predicates of personal taste, and belief reports. / (cont.) In Chapter 3, I extend the analysis to indicative conditionals, showing that this solves longstanding puzzles involving the relationship between conditionals and disjunction. In Chapter 4, I extend the approach to certain control constructions, with a special emphasis on capturing their de se interpretation. In Chapter 5, I look at two puzzles related to Moore's paradox, with special attention to the meaning of imagine. / by Tamina C. Stephenson. / Ph.D.

The present study was designed to determine the ages at which a sample of children between eighteen and forty-two months verbally and correctly express the fourteen prepositions known to be acquired by age four, using the Revised Expressive Preposition Test (REPT). The REPT was administered to sixty children chosen from day care centers and private homes within the metropolitan area of Portland, Oregon. Therewas no preference as to the sex, intelligence of the child or socio- economic status of the child's family. A statistical analysis was performed to determine the correlation between HEPT scores and the child's chronological age, mental age and the socioeconomic status of the child's family. Results show that expressive prepositions tend to be acquired at different age levels. Each age group tended to use a progressively greater number of the prepositions. None of the eighteen month olds used any of the prepositions. Only one-fourth of the twenty-four month olds used any of the prepositions. Half or more of the thirty month olds expressed the prepositions "under," "on," "in" and "up." Half or more of the thirty-six month olds expressed the prepositions "out of," "at," "in" and "up," but not "under" and "on." Half or more of the forty-two month olds expressed the prepositions "to, II, "out of," "under," "around," "at," "of," "with" and "up." One hundred per cent of the forty-two month olds also used the prepositions "in" and "on." The prepositions which were never expressed by 50 per cent of any of the children were "behind," "across," "off" and "by." A statistical analysis of the data revealed a moderate correlation between the children's REPT scores and their chronological ages (.68). Correlation coefficients indicated a high correlation between the children's REFT scores and their combined chronological and mental ages (.82). The children's SES scores did not correlate with REPT scores (1 per cent) when considered together with chronological and mental ages.

Prepositions are not only important in functional syntax; they also relate meanings associated with the concepts of place and time (Washington & Naremore, 1978). Furthermore, prepositions are critical in such everyday activities as producing and comprehending directions, using maps and diagrams, and in the fields of mathematics and music (Cox & Richardson, 1985). Inefficient use or misuse of prepositional spatial terms may hinder a child's progress in many areas. Expressive acquisition of function words, which include prepositions, has been described as significantly delayed in the hearing impaired populations (Cooper & Rosenstein, 1966). The purpose of this study was to conduct a comparative preposition analysis between hearing impaired children using two different modes of communication. The question this researcher sought to answer was: Do 54 severely-to-profoundly hearing impaired children in this study using total communication differ in the expressive acquisition of 17 locative and directional prepositions from 35 hearing impaired children in a previous study (Warlick, 1983) using oral/aural communication?

Learning to use prepositions in English as a second language (L2) has been widely acknowledged to pose significant difficulties to learners, especially within metaphorical contexts. Difficulties relate to the complex distributional patterns of prepositions in discourse, namely, the variety of collocations requiring their use, as well as cross-linguistic differences both at the structural and conceptual levels. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has thus far described learner usage of metaphorical prepositions as “errors”, without placing much detailed attention upon the lexical, conceptual and contextual nuances that may impinge on their uses. Furthermore, scarce attention to the value of learners’ semantic and conceptual patterns in preposition phrasal collocations has led to ineffective memorization-driven instruction. While it is acknowledged that prepositions are difficult for L2 learners, more or less difficulty in learning metaphorical collocations of prepositions within specific prepositional phrases has scarcely been researched, for which this study attempted to provide an initial understanding. This dissertation included a mixed methods and cross-sectional design, where instances of preposition use within two types of metaphorical constructions were explored by means of a semi-structured interview. Extents to which participants may have engaged in spatial thinking while using prepositions metaphorically were also explored through the design of a spatial priming task. The two types of metaphorical constructions focused upon in the study were prepositional phrases complementing the copula (PP-copula constructions) and prepositional phrases complementing prepositional verbs (PP-prepV constructions). Participants included learners of English with L1 Spanish ranging from low intermediate to advanced proficiencies, as well as English native speakers as a comparison group. From a syntax and semantics perspective, both PP-copula and PP-prepV constructions were be deemed to pose difficulties to learners, but to different extents and in relation to several phenomena such as knowledge of conventionality, potential metaphorical conceptualizations, and L1 influence. The study explored patterns and changes in metaphorical preposition use across groups within the two construction types of interest, illuminating trends in conventionality, as well as persistence and changes in metaphorical conceptualizations across proficiencies (“trajectories”). Interrelationships between L1 influence and the incorporation of L2 English patterns were identified in learners’ interlanguage collocations, and were compared across proficiencies. Additionally, potential relationships were explored between participants’ metaphorical preposition uses, and aspects of language experience collected by means of a language background questionnaire. Results suggest that metaphorical PP-prepV constructions tend to contribute more to learners’ repertoires of lexical collocations as proficiency increased compared to metaphorical PP-copula constructions. Conventionality in preposition use was observed to increase with proficiency, especially within metaphorical PP-prepV constructions. Linguistic and conceptual “trajectories” revealed that learners worked with networks of conventional and unconventional preposition collocations. Some unconventional collocations persisted across proficiencies in reference to specific abstract notions, while others shifted toward NS lexical and conceptual conventionality when referring to other abstract notions. The study also shed light on participants’ engagement in spatial thinking while processing prepositions in metaphorical contexts. The discussion highlights lexical and conceptual networks relative to particular abstract notions, as well as L1 and L2 influence in learners’ interlanguage collocations. This study could be relevant to language teachers in offering insight into patterns and changes in L2 learners’ metaphorical preposition use within specific domains of discourse. Findings could provide possible conceptual and lexical starting points among intermediate and advanced proficiencies in relation to specific prepositional phrase constructions, from which teachers could provide scaffolding to promote expansion of learners’ L2 lexical repertoires.