<p> Environmental service-learning is an intentional educational experience(s) wherein learners engage in meaningful activities designed to serve the environment. Environmental service-learning activities vary according to their learning and service goals and include ecomanagement, persuasion, legal action, economic action and political action. The purpose of this mixed methods research was to explore the ecological and educational impacts of grades 6-12 environmental education, with special attention to environmental service-learning throughout Portland, Oregon.</p><p> Ecological impacts considered restoration and conservation outcomes of several environmental service-learning programs including plant communities, soils, litter removal and trail maintenance. Educational outcomes considered aspects of environmental literacy including locus of control, environmental sensitivity, indicated environmentally responsible behaviors, investigating environmental issues and knowledge of physical systems. The relative influence of some significant life experiences on youths' response to environmental education, including environmental service-learning, was also considered. Telephone surveys were used to gather data from 22 Portland metropolitan area environmental education programs. Data included 2014 annual biophysical impacts (e.g., area of invasive species removed, pounds of litter removed) and information on programming (e.g., length of program, % time outside). Eleven programs administered a 33-question environmental literacy assessment to participants of their programs (n=393). The assessment included the New Environmental Paradigm, the Inclusion of Nature in Self, questions from Environmental Identity Scale and self-constructed questions. One 8^th grade program was identified for a detailed case study. In this 8^th grade programs, slight variations in educational activities occurred among three treatment groups which varied the amount of time youth spent engaged in ecomanagement. Youth from the three treatment groups and a control group were administered the environmental literacy assessment at the beginning and end of the program. Qualitative data for the youth in the treatment groups were gathered to further consider how environmental literacy was impacted by participation in the program. </p><p> Stronger associational correlations to environmental literacy occurred for the percentage of time an environmental education program spent outdoors rather than the percentage of time an environmental education program engaged in environmental service-learning (e.g., &ldquo;With other people, I can work to make a positive impact on the environment.&rdquo; rho: .276 vs. &ldquo;I have the skills necessary to make a positive impact on the environment.&rdquo; rho: .176). Random forests indicated that environmental education program features and some significant life experiences could predict collapsed environmental literacy variables (locus of control, environmental sensitivity and environmentally responsible behaviors). 22.4% of the variance in a collapsed environmental sensitivity variable was explained by nine predictor variables; those variables with the strongest influence were youth response to &ldquo;Before this program, how frequently did you spend time in the outdoors&rdquo;, age and the presence of a positive adult role model who cares for the environment. Youth participating in environmental education programs showed higher environmental literacy than control groups (e.g., &ldquo;I feel an important part of my life would be missing if I couldn't get out and enjoy nature from time to time&rdquo; U: 3642.500, p: 0.025). Youth with significant formative life experiences (e.g., those indicating previous environmental education or a positive adult role model that cares for the environment) responded better (higher environmental literacy) to environmental education than those youth without (&ldquo;I pay special attention to things outdoors.&rdquo; chi 10.633, p: 0.031).</p><p> This research provides insight on the efficacy of environmental service-learning. Environmental service-learning positively affected environmental literacy, but outdoor environmental education was more effective in terms of environmental literacy. Results corroborate the body of literature regarding significant life experiences. Further, results suggest that significant life experiences are a critical development milestone necessary for youth to respond to environmental education on a developmental trajectory to empowered environmentally literate citizens.</p>

The state of the planet was briefly examined from economic, social, and environmental perspectives. The examination showed that the world has largely come under a single development paradigm and that the situation this paradigm has led us to is unsustainable and inequitable. There have been a number of efforts to set the planet on a different path to sustainability and social justice but so far they have failed to gain sufficient momentum to achieve change on a scale commensurate with the magnitude and urgency of the problem. The author contends that these efforts for change might be more effective if they could be united under a common, global theme or objective sharing common principles. The research suggests that the idea of dedevelopment might arise as a theme around which many of the movements seeking sustainability and social justice could unite. The author further attempts to show the form dedevelopment might take. The deepening of the current economic and climate crises which has occurred since this research was conducted serves to reinforce the author's argument for the necessity and urgency of a change in the current development paradigm.

The study focuses on two World Heritage sites in KwaZulu-Natal (uKhahlambaDrakensberg Park and the Greater St Lucia Wetlands Park). It sets out to critically examine the social, economic and political aspects of natural heritage in the context of sustainability and contestation. How these heritage landscapes are managed, and in particular how decisions regarding its use and identity are taken, is the central issue under investigation. In particular, this research examines the how an understanding of stakeholder perceptions allows current management strategies to be assessed for their effectiveness and relevance to the stakeholders in the regions and the development of new management strategies which are relevant to stakeholder needs. In this regard, a central concern is to identify and evaluate the degree of participation in resource management, conservation and in direct ecotourism activities links to the heritage sites. Stakeholders will vary in their ability to influence decision-makers and they are also unlikely to gain or lose out equally from particular courses of action. These are all issues which need full consideration in approaches to sustainable tourism management. This study focused on the following stakeholders: neighbouring rural communities, tourists, accommodation personnel and tour operators. Questionnaire surveys were administered to each of the stakeholder groups identified above. Furthermore, participatory exercises (venn diagrams, resource mapping and problem ranking exercises) were conducted with focus groups. The study reveals heterogeneity within and between communities under study in relation to socio-economic aspects and perceptions regarding the Parks and levels of participation in activities linked to the Parks. In relation to heritage sites, the questions of ownership, transparency and accountability are particularly important. The study of ecotourism impacts and their management offers many opportunities to reflect on the importance of sustainability. The impacts, as outlined by the findings of the study, provides the opportunity for the implementation of biodiversity strategies linked to the establishment of conservation priorities, mobilising and establishing partnerships, identifying biodiversity threats and benefits, and providing incentives to conserve. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

Cairo is a key location that is situated on the southern and eastern boundaries of the Mediterranean Basin, where summer tropospheric ozone levels are known to be elevated as a result of the persistence of a semi-stationary anticyclone that favours northerly flow from Europe, where anthropogenic emissions of ozone precursor gases are high. Strong levels of insolation, the absence of wet removal mechanisms, and low deposition velocities over the Mediterranean Sea further promote the summer enhancement of ozone. Ozone profiles at Cairo, recorded by MOZAIC (Measurement of OZone and wAter Vapor aboard In-service AirCraft) aircraft, were examined with a view to assessing the relative influence of a range of factors on the vertical distribution of tropospheric ozone. These included long-range transport of ozone and precursor gases from Europe, North America and Asia, assessed through back trajectory analysis with the aid of the HYSPLIT (Hybrid Single Particle Integrated Trajectory) modelling programme. The influence of local pollution sources was determined using local pollution monitoring data, satellite measurements of nitrogen dioxides (N02) and MOZAIC carbon monoxide (CO) data. Results show that lower and mid-tropospheric ozone values at Cairo are enhanced in summer relative to other seasons, with high upper tropospheric values occurring in February and April. The upper tropospheric variability is attributed to stratospheric intrusions during the movement of the tropopause which is consistent with the known springtime enhancement due to stratospheric-tropospheric exchange (STE). The lower tropospheric summer enhancement is linked to the effects of local pollution and polluted air masses originating from Europe. This summer ozone enhancement extends to a height of 8 km, which is fairly unusual for the region. The mid-tropospheric ozone enhancement appears to be a unique feature observed over Cairo, as other Mediterranean cities such as Athens, Greece usually display peaks in the upper and lower troposphere only. Therefore this enhancement is of considerable interest as it is unique to the region. iii In the mid-troposphere mean ozone values in summer (JJA) range between 70-80 ppbv, with values approaching 100 ppbv on individual days. Investigations into the probable causes of this enhancement suggest that the enhanced ozone is not created in the midtroposphere due to low levels of ozone precursor gases occurring in the mid-troposphere. Further, convective uplift of near-surface ozone is unlikely to occur as local pollution is confined to below 1000 hPa. It is therefore suggested that the enhanced ozone in the midtroposphere is being brought into the region by the long-range of polluted air masses from distant sources. Hierarchical classification of ozone profiles using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 11, 2001) programme allowed for the determination of least and most polluted profiles to emerge, which when related to air mass origins, highlights the significant role of long-range transport to mid-tropospheric ozone summer enhancement. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

Many rural households in southern Africa rely on a range of woodland resources for their livelihoods. In addition to direct use values, rural households also obtain indirect use benefits from the woodlands resources. These include ecological services such as soil protection and nutrient cycling; and social values such as shade and aesthetic values. The value of woodland resources to rural households in southern Africa has been researched extensively. Most of these studies assess direct use values, which are expressed in monetary terms. In contrast, there are fewer studies that assess indirect use values of woodland resources, and even fewer studies that assess non-monetary values. Non-monetary valuation is important to add to the knowledge gained through monetary valuation studies. This study was undertaken as part of a national investment by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) on Sustainable Woodlands Utilization and Management in the country. The aim of this study was to establish monetary and non-monetary values associated with indirect use benefits of woodland resources in three rural villages in northern KwaZulu-Natal. A pilot study was undertaken to pre-test the data collection techniques before the main survey. The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) were used to investigate monetary and non-monetary values during the pilot study. Data collection techniques involved interviews using semi structured questionnaires, direct observation, group discussions and resource mapping. The pilot study established that, due to its inherent properties, CVM was not the best method for this particular context (rural area in a developing country). In comparison, PRA techniques were more useful in obtaining meaningful data on the value of indirect-use benefits of woodlands. The main survey was undertaken using PRA techniques that included, in addition to the techniques used during the pilot study, contingent ranking. Interpretive categorization was used to analyze qualitative data. Quantitative data analysis involved the description of data, and results presented using descriptive statistics, tables and graphs. Excel spreadsheets were used for data storage and processing. The study established that rural households were acutely aware of the indirect-use benefits of woodland resources. Respondents were able to describe indirect use benefits in terms of social functions and ecological services provided by woodlands. Age, gender and remoteness of village seem to influence the value assigned to the identified woodland benefits. Ranking of the indirect use benefits revealed higher values for ecological services compared to social functions. Female respondents generally assigned greater values for both ecological and social services, compared to their male counterparts. All respondents concurred that the contribution that woodlands make to their livelihoods is Significant. The aim of the study was to investigate monetary and non-monetary values of indirect use benefits of woodland resources. The first part of the aim was not achieved, due to the incompatibility of the CVM to the study area (illiterate and semi-literate respondents in a rural setting). In terms of non-monetary values the study succeeded in demonstrating that rural households value woodland services highly, through their contribution to their livelihoods and well-being. The study concluded that the entire contribution of woodland resources to rural households is still not fully comprehended. To ensure the sustainability of woodland resources, the need to fully understand their contribution to rural livelihoods remains. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2005.

<p>Over half of the biosolids produced in wastewater treatment facilities in the United States are land-applied as a nutrient-rich soil amendment. However, these biosolids are not regulated for chemicals of emerging concern that are often present at high concentrations in biosolids. The overall goal of this dissertation is to evaluate the specific chemical fates of these compounds in biosolid-amended soil, including their persistence, degradation pathways, and phytoaccumulation potential. </p><p>As a first step toward this goal, the fate of select brominated flame retardants (BFRs) when exposed to sunlight was examined to evaluate their photodegradation pathways and to identify degradation products that may be used as markers of environmental degradation in future studies. In Chapter 2, the photodegradation of three polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners (i.e., the nonabrominated congeners BDE 206, 207, and 208) was examined individually in three different solvents exposed to natural sunlight. Rapid degradation of nonaBDEs was observed coincident with formation of octa- and heptabrominated PBDEs. The photodegradation pathways of each nonaBDE congener were consistent among the different solvent matrices tested; however, mass balances were found to vary with solvent type. The octabrominated congener, BDE 202, and the ratio of BDE 197 to BDE 201, were identified as degradation products that can serve as environmental markers of debromination. Additional photodegradation studies were conducted with two new BFRs used in replacements for pentaBDE mixtures: 2-ethylhexyltetrabromobenzoate (TBB) and di(2-ethylhexyl)-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH). Both TBB and TBPH underwent photolysis more slowly than nonaBDEs and primarily formed debrominated products. This study is the first to report on the photodegradation of TBB and TBPH via debromination reactions and suggests that these replacement flame retardants may be more photolytically persistent than higher brominated PBDE congeners.</p><p>Chemical analysis of biosolids collected from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can help determine whether these flame retardants are migrating from the indoor environment to the outdoor environment, where little is known about their ultimate fate and effects. In Chapter 3, concentrations of a suite of flame retardants and the antimicrobial compound triclosan were measured in opportunistic samples of municipal biosolids and the domestic sludge Standard Reference Material (SRM) 2781. Grab samples of biosolids were collected from two WWTPs in North Carolina and two in California. Biosolids samples were also obtained during three subsequent collection events at one of the North Carolina WWTPs to evaluate fluctuations in contaminant levels within a given facility over a period of three years. The biosolids and SRM 2781 were analyzed for PBDEs, a suite of alternate brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, and triclosan. PBDEs were detected in every sample analyzed, and &#931;PBDE concentrations ranged from 1750 to 6358 ng/g dry weight (dw). Additionally, the PBDE replacement chemicals TBB and TBPH were detected at concentrations ranging from 120 to 3749 ng/g dw and from 206 to 1631 ng/g dw, respectively. Triclosan concentrations ranged from 490 to 13,866 ng/g dw. The detection of these contaminants of emerging concern in biosolids suggests that these chemicals have the potential to migrate out of consumer products and enter the outdoor environment. Furthermore, land application of these contaminated biosolids may result in soil contamination and enhance the bioaccumulation and long-range transport potential of these compounds. </p><p>In order to fully evaluate the benefits and impacts of biosolids land application, a comprehensive view of the behaviors of chemicals of emerging concern in biosolids is needed. In Chapter 4, the fates of a suite of flame retardants and triclosan in soil were evaluated in a greenhouse experiment utilizing three biosolid amendment levels (control, low, and high) and two vegetation treatments (unplanted and planted with alfalfa (<italic>Medicago sativa</italic>)). BDE 47, BDE 209, TBB, TBPH, and triclosan declined significantly in the high biosolid-amended vegetated soil between Days 0 and 28 (p < 0.05), and then reached a plateau between Days 28 and 90 during which no further significant loss from soil was observed. In contrast, no significant losses of those analytes were observed from soil at the high biosolids amendment in non-vegetated pots. The percent of a given analyte lost from the vegetated soil at the high amendment between Day 0 and the plateau ranged from 43.1% for TBPH to 60.9% for triclosan and was significantly and negatively related to the log octanol-water partition coefficient (log K_OW) of the analyte (p = 0.0103, R<super>2</super> = 0.9178) and marginally significantly and positively related to the log of water solubility (p = 0.0686, R<super>2</super> = 0.7213). Alfalfa root and shoot tissues were monitored for the analytes of interest but no clear evidence of phytoaccumulation was observed. Methyl triclosan formation was observed in the biosolid-amended soils during the study period, indicating that biotransformation played a role in the observed dissipation of triclosan. The results of Chapter 4 demonstrate that PBDEs, selected alternate BFRs and triclosan are highly recalcitrant in biosolid-amended soils but capable of undergoing dissipation in the presence of alfalfa and, in the case of triclosan, biotransformation. </p><p>In conclusion, this dissertation provides a comprehensive view of the fates of flame retardants and triclosan in biosolid-amended soil, identifying markers of degradation that can be used in complex real-world scenarios, developing methods for measurement of a diverse suite of analytes in biosolids and plant tissues, and demonstrating the persistence of these compounds in biosolid-amended soil.</p> / Dissertation

<p> The island apple snail, <i>Pomacea maculata,</i> family Ampullariidae, is a large freshwater gastropod native to South America. <i>P. maculata </i> is known as a heavy consumer of aquatic plants. <i>P. maculata </i> was introduced to Florida in the 1990s and has rapidly spread throughout natural and man-made wetlands and waterways in the southeastern United States. Negative ecosystem impacts associated with <i>P. maculata</i> invasion include destruction of macrophyte communities via overgrazing, competitive exclusion of the native Florida apple snail <i>Pomacea paludosa,</i> and the potential transmission of toxins and parasites to predators. </p><p> Populations of <i>P. maculata</i> have been documented in freshwater tributaries of estuaries such as Mobile Bay, Alabama and the Caloosahatchee Estuary, Florida, and the snails may be moving into the estuaries themselves. The objectives of this study were: 1) to evaluate <i>P. maculata</i>'s potential to harm macrophytes like tapegrass, <i>Vallisneria americana, </i> in low-salinity estuarine environments, 2) to determine how the grazer's destructiveness might by moderated by environmental context (salinity, temperature, and the presence of other macrophyte species), and 3) to identify management and restoration strategies for <i>V. americana</i> to minimize the harm done by <i>P. maculata</i>. We accomplished these objectives with feeding trials and mesocosm experiments conducted under varying conditions of salinity, temperature, and macrophyte community composition. </p><p> We found that increasing salinity lowered <i>P. maculata</i> grazing pressure on <i>V. americana</i> but increasing temperature increased grazing pressure. Herbivory on <i>V. americana</i> was not reduced and was sometimes intensified when other aquatic plant species were present. The results of two mesocosm experiments suggested that salinity and snail presence have a nonadditive, antagonistic, effect on <i>V. americana.</i> I.e., in the absence of snails the plant performed best at 0 psu, whereas when snails were present the plant did best at 5-10 psu due to reduced snail grazing. Due to the significant sub-lethal impacts of salinity on <i>P. maculata</i>'s grazing and health it is unlikely that the snail's invasion will proceed beyond the lowest salinity portions of estuaries. These estuarine regions can therefore serve as a valuable refuge for <i>V. americana</i> populations, providing that effective water management keeps salinity below the approximately 10 psu threshold where significant direct harm occurs to the plants.</p>

Violence and crime are amongst the most difficult of the many challenges facing South Africa. There is widespread concern in all segments of society about persistent and widespread violence and crime. The central aim of the study is to critically examine the socio-economic and environmental perceptions and impacts of violence and crime in residential areas in Durban, South Africa, by utilizing specific case studies. This study contributes to understanding the socio-economic and environmental perceptions of crime and violence at the local level. The actual and perceived spatial distribution and understanding of violence and crime ronn a critical focus of this study. This study adopts a multi-conceptual framework (drawing from the psychological/behavioural perspective, political economy approach and rational perspective of physical environment and crime) that coalesces several themes relating to crime and violence including historical contexts, policy frameworks, stakeholder analyses, environmental aspects, economic facets, distributional concerns as well as social and cultural dimensions. The focus of the study in terms of primary data collection was Durban. Within this area the specific residential localities (from infoffilal settlements to upper income areas) were chosen from the lnnerwest sub-region. The four specific communities/localities chosen reflect the residential settlement type and socio-economic differentiation prevalent in the area as well as to some extent the historical residential classification on the basis of race. These localities are Westville (a historically White, upper income area), Reservoir Hills (a historically Lndian, middle income area), Cleffilont (a historically African, working class township) and the Palmiet and New Germany Road in informal settlements. The case studies reflect a cross-section of experiences contrasting institutional dynamics as well as socio-economic and spatial contexts and experiences. Both quantitative (questionnaire surveys) and qualitative (focus group discussions, key informant interviews and ranking exercises) methods were employed to collect primary data from the following stakeholders: residents, businesses, police, private security companies and community-based organizations/community forums. The main findings of the research were that perceptions of safety and security varied greatly depending on personal, socio-economic, and environmental/spatial factors. Gender, class and race emerged as key socio-economic aspects. Furthermore, violence and the threat of violence severely constrain and influence the movements and options of people. Respondents considered several areas within the communities, especially public spaces, to be unsafe. Respondents, especially those who could afford to do so, used a range of security measures. This study shows that acts of violence and crime need to be understood in their environmental contexts inclusive of the locational/spatial, social, economic and political dimensions. An examination and greater understanding of the socio-economic and spatial manifestations of crime and violence is paramount to develop safe and secure environments. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Oklahoma State University, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Oklahoma State University, 2004. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. 142-162).