Thesis (Ph.D.). / Written for the Dept. of Geography. Title from title page of PDF (viewed 2008/08/04). Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Los Angeles, 2002. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, Los Angeles, 2003. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--College of William and Mary. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references. Also available online.

Water quality and ecological integrity of estuaries reflect activities within the entire upstream catchment. Much emphasis has been placed on the response of estuaries to anthropogenic stressors through the use of monitoring programmes. Key to the success of these programmes is the use of indicators as they transform data into useful information. The ultimate aim of this study was to identify eutrophic symptoms in selected estuaries in the Gouritz Water Management Area (WMA) using a multi-metric classification method. The study sites included the permanently open Duiwenhoks, Goukou, Gouritz, and Kaaimans estuaries, as well as the temporarily open/closed Hartenbos, Klein Brak, Great Brak, Gwaing, and Goukamma estuaries. Initially, the “pressure” associated with all the estuaries in the Gouritz WMA was determined (e.g. total daily nutrient loads and changes in river inflow affecting flushing time) using long-term flow and water quality monitoring data provided by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA). Subsequently, the “state” of the selected estuaries was assessed using a variety of indicators, including: inorganic nutrients (~ N and P), phytoplankton, epiphytes and microphytobenthos. Estuaries with longer flushing time suggested greater vulnerability to eutrophication. For example, the Gwaing (281.11 kg DIN d-1; 78.85 kg DIP d-1) and Hartenbos (38.33 kg DIN d-1; 21.51 kg DIP d-1) estuaries generally received the highest daily inorganic nutrient loads. However, at the time of sampling, the Hartenbos Estuary had a longer flushing time (i.e. weeks) compared to the Gwaing Estuary (i.e. couple of days). Field data confirmed the greater vulnerability to eutrophication associated with longer flushing times, as the indicators measured in the Hartenbos Estuary exceeded all the proposed ‘thresholds’ of a eutrophic system (~ overall ‘Poor’ condition). The Great Brak Estuary (~ overall ‘Fair’ condition) provided an interesting example where eutrophic symptoms were only detected when assessing the microalgal primary producers (i.e. high biomass and low diversity). Furthermore, the need to distinguish between naturally and anthropogenically induced symptoms was highlighted. One such scenario was noted in the Kaaimans Estuary, where its natural hydro-morphological characteristics (i.e. steep banks, low river inflow, and deep/narrow channel) led to the possible exaggeration of its overall eutrophic condition, i.e. received a ‘Fair’ rather than ‘Good’ rating, arising from ‘Poor’ ratings for dissolved oxygen and benthic diatom diversity. Overall, this study demonstrated the importance of adopting a holistic approach when assessing the condition and trophic status of estuaries. Studies such as these allow for the detection of vulnerable and degraded systems, which can provide important information with regards to the identification of management priorities.

Extensive data sets of water quality and sediment chemistry as well as detailed historical records were used to analyze environmental factors controlling dinoflagellate cyst distribution in shallow estuaries (lagoons and embayments) of southern New England. Cyst abundance, species richness, the proportion of cysts produced by heterotrophic and autotrophic dinoflagellates, and the composition of cyst assemblages reflect spatial and temporal variation in environmental conditions. The cyst record in sediment cores from two embayments, New Bedford Harbor and Apponagansett Bay, Massachusetts demonstrates cyst sensitivity to environmental change caused by anthropogenic activity in the watersheds. Intensive industrialization and urbanization occurred during the 20th century in New Bedford Harbor resulted in extreme eutrophication and toxic pollution (heavy metals and PCBs). These conditions are reflected in declining cyst diversity and wide fluctuation in total cyst production. At the same time, the proportion of certain heterotrophic taxa increases. As impacts of extreme eutrophication and toxic pollution cannot be separated, the cyst response must be interpreted as a cumulative «pollution signal». The spatial distribution of modern dinoflagellate cysts in the area supports this signal. Cysts vary along gradients of nutrient enrichment, corresponding to distance from sewage outfalls. Dinoflagellate cysts in surface sediments from New England lagoons also were studied. A comparison of assemblages to water quality parameters, that are affected greatly by the degree of water exchange between lagoon and ocean, indicates that temperature and salinity are the main abiotic factors controlling cyst distribution in these estuaries. A new species of dinoflagellate cyst, Islandinium brevispinosum, has been identified and described. This species was found within a narrow range of water temperature and salinity, and at elevated nutrient levels. Dinoflagellate cysts reflect environmental conditions at the small spatial scales necessary to characterize variability within estuaries. However, the relative importance of abiotic factors controlling the spatial and temporal distribution of dinoflagellate cysts is likely to vary with the hydrological differences between lagoons and embayments. Therefore, dinoflagellate cysts can be useful indicators of environmental conditions in and human impacts on shallow estuaries.

No description available.

[Truncated abstract] In my study of Australonereis ehlersi and Simplisetia aequisetis [Polychaeta: Nereididae] from the Swan River Estuary, Western Australia, I assessed the life history, geographical population structure and production of both species, then measured their roles in microbial denitrification and nitrogen cycling within the sediments of the estuary. Both species exhibit a mean life-span of approximately 1 year, a production:biomass turnover rate of about 3 and potentially are capable of reproducing throughout the year, peaking during winter to spring. A. ehlersi exhibited a marine euryhaline distribution, occurring only in the main basin and lower estuary, typically at a very low density of adults; S. aequisetis exhibited a euryhaline distribution, occurring estuary-wide during both summer and winter. High density and biomass of A. ehlersi occurred in the middle estuary (at Como), predominantly as winter- recruiting juveniles. Gravid, atokous adults spawned pelagically, with a 2 to 4 month larval development period preceding settlement. Intolerance of freshwater by the pelagic larvae possibly is the major reason excluding specimens from the upper reaches of the Estuary. Adult S. aequisetis brood eggs and embryonic larvae in tubiculous burrows; the life-cycle presumably progresses entirely in sediments of relatively stable interstitial salinity (compared to pelagic fluctuations), enabling recruitment by larvae and adults into the upper reaches of the Estuary. ... The ammonification rate was higher for A. ehlersi than S. aequisetis-inhabited cores, and lowest in uninhabited cores where polychaete excretion was absent. In the absence of C2H2, sediments of S. aequisetis inhabited cores indicated a lower net NH4+ influx than uninhabited cores, whereas A. ehlersi inhabited cores exhibited a slight net efflux of NH4+ from the sediment. The difference in magnitude of nitrogenous fluxes imparted by the two polychaete species is hypothesised to relate to the influence of their respective habits on the composition and activity of their associated sedimentary microbial community. Juvenile S. aequisetis are hypothesised to homogenise and aerate sediment continually, enhancing microbial nitrification and retarding anaerobic denitrification. Permanent A. ehlersi burrows would facilitate vertical and radial oxic/anoxic stratification of sediment which, combined with enhanced substrate supply through burrow ventilation, resulted in increased rates of microbial denitrification and nitrification. I have proposed a preliminary framework by which guilds of benthic fauna, each with similar designated habits, may be tested for predictable bioturbative influence on nitrogen cycling, i.e. whether particular habits may be considered 'functional groups'. In conclusion, the fine-scale effects of A. ehlersi and S. aequisetis on microbial nitrogen cycling are integrated with details of broader-scale population dynamics to define the role of polychaetes in estuarine nitrogen cycling, with a view to managing eutrophication.