Desecration of religious places has drawn the attention of the world media, academics and policymakers on a number of occasions. The desecration of the Church of the Nativity, the cross-desecration by both Orthodox and Muslims of the Balkans, the desecration of the Sikh Golden Temple, the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddha Monolith by the Taliban in Afghanistan and many others have attracted world condemnation. However, there has been little or no cross-sectional research or academic enquiry into the causes or impacts of desecration. The question of what constitutes desecration and what are the impacts of desecration are the subject of this study. This study attempts to establish that desecration could be a factor for protest, rebellion and violence, often independent of political, economic and social factors. The study begins with a discussion about the concept of the sacred and profane followed by an analysis of what factors influence sacredness. Based on a historical perspective of desecration and pollution a causal relationship is established to explain why believers consider desecration to be a challenge and resort to protests, rebellion or violence. Finally, the hypotheses are demonstrated qualitatively, through a number of cases studies.

While some multiethnic states suffer from ethnicity-based conflicts, others enjoy the benefits of diversity, such as different skill sets, interests, and cultures. However, the cost of ethnic conflict is overwhelming. Ernest Regehr wrote in 1993 that almost two-thirds of political conflicts worldwide were ethnic conflicts. Although ethnic conflict is a worldwide phenomenon, it is not fate. Unlike the many unfortunate ones, some ethnically divided nations have successfully lived together without giving rise to widespread bloodshed or forceful repression. Potential fault lines between parties have been reengineered and tensions have been regulated. In this study, the central question is focused on governmental policies as a tool to prevent conflict. Contrary to the general perception, the vast majority of ethnic conflicts are political. As a political problem, it can be exacerbated or moderated by governmental policies or the lack of such policies. This thesis study has three main parts. In the first part, Daniel Byman's four causes of ethnic conflicts are discussed. In the second part, I recommend a solution in the form of a coherent four-fold framework consisting of "population control," "winning hearts and minds," "strengthening national identity" and "reengineering the political system". In the last part, this framework is applied to present-day Iraq.

The international community adopted DDR programs at the end of the Cold War in 1989 as a means to end violent conflicts in various parts of world. The traditional DDR programs were designed either to disband the defeated enemy forces, or to integrate excombatants where the fighting has not been conclusive. Exclusion of ex-combatants has resulted in renewed conflict. This thesis argues that conventional DDR has neglected two important aspects that are crucial for sustainable stability and societal reconciliation: military integration and a sensitization program. In contrast, an approach that integrates former enemy forces and equally reintegrates ex-combatants and government forces into civilian society not only ends violent conflict, but also bridges the social gap among ethnic groups and, consequently, enhances societal reconciliation. The Rwandan DDRI program considers integration/reintegration of ex-combatants that precedes the sensitization phase that takes 3-4 months; this has led to stability and reconciliation after the 1994 genocide. Ingando is a reconciliation tool that transforms negative perceptions that cause ethnic hatred; mitigates conflict influence factors; and manages defeat, shame, and remorse on the part of the loser. Therefore DDRI programs that integrate a sensitization program and exit strategy lead to sustainable stability and reconciliation.

The general thrust of this research was to determine to what degree and how ethnic groups in the United States influence Congressional foreign policy-making process. To do this, the research focused on the African-Americans' influence on Congressional foreign policy initiatives toward South Africa. Specifically, the research determined, measured, and analyzed the statistical significance between the African-American policy preference and in-puts, and the Congressional roll-call votes on the Anti-Apartheid legislations of 1985 and 1986. In summary, this research followed this pattern: (a) We first looked at the group under study by identifying its interests and policy preferences; (b) We described the linkages between the group and the policy makers; (c) We analyzed the decision making process and activities of the group in attempting to affect that process; (d) We described the decision/policy output and compared it to the interests and policy preferences of the African-Americans; {e) We also described and analyzed other factors which might have influenced the policy output; and (f) We concluded that the African-Americans influenced Congressional foreign policy initiatives toward South Africa.

Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) infection modulates the response of innate immune cells. The aim of this work was to study the impact of P. falciparum infection and P. falciparum-derived molecules on the response of dendritic cells (DC) and monocytes. In paper I we investigated the effects of natural hemozoin (nHZ), a P. falciparum-derived molecule, on the phenotype and functionality of DC. We found that exposure to nHZ impaired the capacity of DC to mature. Paper II is a follow-up on paper I, where the underlying transcriptional events preceding the nHZ-induced impairment of DC maturation were investigated. More specifically, we examined the involvement of certain transcription factors, subunits of chromatin remodeling complexes and histone modifications in the regulation of DC maturation. Our findings suggest that nHZ-exposure of DC does not lead to recruitment or enrichment of molecules needed for transcriptional activation. In paper III we investigated P. falciparum effects in vivo in sympatric ethnic groups with differential susceptibility towards P. falciparum infection living in Burkina Faso. The aim of this study was to establish the transcriptional networks underlying the relatively better protection against P. falciparum infection observed in the Fulani ethnic group compared to other sympatric ethnic groups. Our findings reveal differential gene expression in monocytes of infected Fulani compared to uninfected Fulani and the difference concerned multiple classes of genes including signal transduction, immunological responses and chromatin remodelers. The results provide new aspects on molecules and regulatory mechanisms that are involved in the relatively more protective response against P. falciparum infection. Taken together, the work presented in this thesis leads to a deeper understanding of the P. falciparum-induced modulation of responses of innate immune cells and the underlying mechanisms possibly regulating those responses. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Manuscript. Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>

Introdução: A grande miscigenação populacional no Brasil tem influência nas características cefalométricas, faciais e dentárias e variam significantemente entre as diferentes raças. A Ortodontia não pode mais aceitar valores absolutos ou padrões de normalidade rígidos, pois cada indivíduo apresenta arquitetura facial própria, sendo necessário respeitar as diferenças de cada raça e conhecer as individualidades de cada tipo étnico e racial. O conhecimento da posição do incisivo inferior na sínfise é importante para o correto diagnóstico e o tratamento a oferecer para o paciente. Proposição: Comparar o posicionamento do incisivo inferior na sínfise em jovens brasileiros leucodermas, melanodermas e feodermas para obter os valores médios de normalidade e comparar os valores obtidos entre esses grupos raciais. Material e Métodos: A amostra foi constituída de 115 telerradiografias em norma lateral de indivíduos brasileiros jovens com oclusão normal, divididos em três grupos de ambos os gêneros: grupo I: 38 indivíduos leucodermas, sendo 19 do gênero feminino e 19 do gênero masculino; grupo II: 39 indivíduos melanodermas, 19 do gênero feminino e 20 do gênero masculino e grupo III: 38 indivíduos feodermas, sendo eles 19 do gênero feminino e 19 do gênero masculino. A partir das telerradiografias, foram obtidos os traçados e medidas cefalométricas para comparação das grandezas mediante a análise de Vigorito. Resultados: Os indivíduos melanodermas apresentaram a sínfise mais inclinada para vestibular, a maxila e o incisivo inferior mais protruido e o perfil mais convexo que os leucodermas e feodermas. Conclusões: Pode se concluir que os melanodermas apresentam diferentes características em relação aos leucodermas e feodermas, portanto é importante reconhecer os valores para obter um perfil harmonioso. / Introduction: The great miscegenation of the population in Brazil have a direct influence on the cephalometric, facial and dental characteristics. All of these vary between different races. Orthodontics does not accept absolute values to evaluate normality, because each individual have their own facial pattern. Therefore, it is important to study the differences of the cephalometric values for each ethnic group. The lower incisor position is considered essential to make diagnosis and design a correct treatment plan. The objective of these research is to compare the linear measurements of the position of the mandibular incisor in White, Black and Afrocaucasian Brazilian adolescents. Materials and Methods: The sample was comprised by 115 lateral headfilms of Brazilian individuals with normal occlusion, divided in three groups: 38 White-Brazilian (19 females and 19 males), 39 Black- Brazilian (19 females and 20 males) and 38 Afrocaucasian-Brazilian (19 females and 19 males). The Lateral headfilms were digitalized and the variables were measured performed by the Vigorito analysis. Black- Brazilian sample showed significantly differences than the other groups. Results: Black- Brazilian subjects presented the most inclined symphysis for vestibular, the maxilla and the lower incisor more protruded and the profile more convex than the leucodermas and feodermas. Conclusion: The results of these research allow us to concluded that Black-Brazilian presented different characteristics than White and Afrocaucasian Brazilian and it is important to recognize each value to reach a harmonious profile.

Introdução: O objetivo desse estudo foi comparar as medidas angulares, lineares, utilizando a análise de Vigorito como parâmetro em Leucodermas, Xantodermas e Nipo-brasileiros para obter os valores médios de normalidade, comparar os valores obtidos e as diferenças entre os grupos raciais e o dimorfismo entre os sexos. Métodos: A amostra retrospectiva foi constituída de 103 telerradiografias em norma lateral de indivíduos brasileiros jovens com oclusão normal, divididos em três grupos: grupo I com 38 indivíduos Leucodermas, sendo 19 de cada gênero; grupo II, com 33 indivíduos Xantodermas, sendo 17 do gênero feminino e 16 do masculino; grupo III, com 32 indivíduos mestiços Nipo-Brasileiros, sendo 17 do gênero feminino e 15 do masculino. Estas radiografias foram digitalizadas utilizando o scanner Scan Maker i800, e as variáveis cefalométricas próprias da análise foram medidas através do software Cephx 4.5.14. e comparadas entre as diferentes raças. A compatibilidade das idades foi analisada utilizando o teste ANOVA seguido de teste de Tukey. O dimorfismo sexual foi avaliado com teste t independente e a comparação entre grupos foi realizado pelo teste ANCOVA seguido de teste de Tukey. Resultados: Os indivíduos femininos dos grupos Leucoderma e Nipo-Brasileiros apresentaram diferenças estatisticamente significantes para o dimorfismo sexual mostrando um perfil facial mais convexo, e incisivo inferior menos protruído. Além disso, os indivíduos Nipo-Brasileiros apresentaram uma protrusão maxilar significantemente menor quando comparados com Xantodermas e Leucodermas, que também apresentaram uma menor protrusão do incisivo comparados com Nipo-Brasileiros respectivamente. Conclusões: Os indivíduos Leucodermas, Xantoderma e Nipo-Brasileiros com oclusão normal apresentaram algumas diferenças dentoesqueléticas, dentárias, faciais e entre os sexos em relação à sínfise mandibular. Assim se justifica a individualização dos padrões cefalométricos destes diferentes grupos raciais. / Introduction: The aim of this study was to compare the linear and angular measurements, using the Vigorito analysis as parameter in White, Xanthoderm and Japanese-Brazilian adolescents for the average normal values, comparing the values and differences obtained between racial groups and the sex dimorphism. Methods: The sample included 103 lateral films, divided into three groups: Group I with 38 white subjects, 19 males and 19 females; Group II, with 33 Japanese subjects, 17 females and 16 males; Group III, with 32 Japanese-Brazilian subjects, 17 females and 15 males with normal occlusion. Lateral films were scanned using San Maker i800 scanner, and CephX 4.5.4. was used for measure the cephalometric variables and were compared Intragroup sexual dimorphism was evaluated with t tests. Intergroup comparisons were performed with ANCOVA followed by Tukey tests. Results: White and Japanese- Brazilian female group presented statistically significant differences for sexual dimorphism, showing a higher facial convexity and lower mandibular incisor protrusion. In addition, Japanese-Brazilian subjects presented a significant lower maxillary protrusion when compared with Japanese and White subjects, which also presented a lower mandibular incisor protrusion compare with Japanese-Brazilian respectively. Conclusions: Whites, Japanese and Japanese-Brazilian subjects with normal occlusion presented dentoskeletal and facial soft tissues profile differences when analyzed through cephalometric Vigorito´ analysis. Thus, the individualization of cephalometric norms in different racial groups is justified.

Com o propósito de apresentar um padrão cefalométrico específico para os jovens brasileiros feodermas, este estudo objetivou obter os valores médios de normalidade para algumas das variáveis cefalométricas dentárias e verificar a presença de dimorfismo entre os gêneros. A amostra constituiu-se de 40 telerradiografias, em norma lateral, sendo 20 do gênero masculino, com idade média de 13,25 anos (idade mínima de 12,20 anos e máxima de 14,30 anos), e 20 do gênero feminino, com idade média de 13,10 anos (idade mínima de 12,00 anos e máxima de 14,21 anos), obtidas em jovens brasileiros, feodermas (mulatos ou pardos), não submetidos ao tratamento ortodôntico e que apresentavam \"oclusão normal\". As variáveis cefalométricas dentárias foram determinadas de acordo com as análises de DOWNS, STEINER, RIEDEL, TWEED, McNAMARA, RICKETTS. Os valores foram submetidos à análise estatística pelo teste \"t\" independente para comparar as variáveis entre os gêneros. De acordo com os resultados e a metodologia aplicada, pode-se concluir que os incisivos superiores e inferiores apresentaram-se protruídos e inclinados para vestibular. Não ocorreu diferença estatística significante entre os gêneros para as treze variáveis dentárias avaliadas. / The purpose of this study was to present a specific cephalometric dental pattern for young Brazilian afrocaucasian descendents, by obtaining the mean values of some dental cephalometric variables, and to analyse the prevalence or absence of dimorphism between genders. The sample comprised 40 lateral cephalograms, 20 of male (mean age of 13.15 years) and 20 of female (mean age of 13.10 years) subjects. All subjects were offspring from the miscegenation of Brazilian African and Caucasian adults. All subjects presented permanent dentition in occlusion, except for the third molars, and had not received previous orthodontic treatment. Cephalometric dental measurements were performed following the analyses of DOWNS, STEINER, RIEDEL, TWEED, McNAMARA, RICKETTS. Comparison between genders was performed by the independent \"t\" test. Data obtained from this methodology confirmed the absence of dimorphism between genders. Additionally, protrusion and buccal tipping of maxillary and mandibular incisors were observed, thus evidencing the adoption of a specific cephalometric pattern for this population.

Atualmente, as áreas metropolitanas apresentam uma população diversificada, estabelecendo a necessidade de reconhecer que um único padrão de estética facial não é apropriado para as decisões de diagnóstico e plano de tratamento ortodôntico, para indivíduos de várias origens étnicas, que migraram para distintas regiões geográficas. Com o propósito de apresentar a importância de um padrão cefalométrico específico para os jovens brasileiros leucodermas, melanodermas e feodermas, este estudo propôs obter os valores médios de normalidade para as grandezas cefalométricas esqueléticas, dentárias e tegumentares, comparar os valores obtidos entre os grupos étnicos e verificar a presença de dimorfismo entre os gêneros. A amostra constituiu-se de 146 telerradiografias em norma lateral de indivíduos jovens brasileiros não tratados, apresentando oclusão normal, divididos em três grupos: Grupo 1- 50 indivíduos leucodermas (25 de cada gênero) com idade média de 13,17 anos; Grupo 2- 40 indivíduos feodermas (20 de cada gênero) com idade média de 13,12 anos; e Grupo 3- 56 indivíduos melanodermas (28 de cada gênero) com idade média de 13,24 anos. Para a avaliação da compatibilidade intergrupos quanto à idade e comparação dos valores das grandezas cefalométricas, utilizou-se a análise de variância (ANOVA) seguida pelo teste de Tukey. Para avaliação do dimorfismo entre os gêneros, realizou-se o teste t independente. Os melanodermas apresentaram a maior protrusão maxilar, os incisivos inferiores mais vestibularizados e os lábios superior e inferior mais proeminentes; os feodermas apresentaram valores intermediários, e os leucodermas os menores valores, com diferenças significantes entre os três grupos avaliados. Além disso, os melanodermas e feodermas, comparados aos leucodermas, apresentaram maior protrusão mandibular, um padrão de crescimento mais horizontal e os incisivos superiores mais vestibularizados e protruídos. No entanto, os melanodermas, quando comparados aos feodermas e leucodermas, demonstraram maior discrepância maxilomandibular, maior convexidade facial óssea, maior protrusão dos incisivos inferiores e o ângulo nasolabial mais agudo. Encontrou-se também, dimorfismo entre gêneros para algumas variáveis cefalométricas nos três grupos étnicos. / Actually, metropolitan areas have diverse populations, with a need to recognize that a standard of facial esthetics might not be appropriate when making orthodontics diagnostic and treatment plans for patients from various racial and ethnic backgrounds that migrated to distinct geographic bounds. With the purpose of using a specific cephalometric standard for white, black and afrocaucasian young Brazilian descents, this study aimed to obtain mean normal values to skeletal, dental and soft tissue cephalometric variables and to compare the values obtained among the ethnic groups and to verify the presence of sexual dimorphism. The sample comprised 146 lateral cephalograms of untreated young Brazilian subjects, presenting normal occlusion, divided into three groups: Group 1- 50 White subjects (25 of each sex), at a mean age of 13.17 years; Group 2- 40 afrocaucasian descents (20 of each sex), at a mean age of 13.12 years; Group 3- 56 Black subjects (28 of each sex), at a mean age of 13.24 years. Evaluation of intergroup compatibility regarding age and comparison of values of cephalometric measurements were performed by one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey test. Independent t tests were used to determine sexual dimorphism. Blacks presented the greatest maxillary protrusion, greatest labial tipping of mandibular incisors, and the most prominent upper and lower lips; afrocaucasian descents presented intermediate values, and whites presented the lowest values, with significant differences among the three groups evaluated. Besides, blacks and afrocaucasians, when related to whites, presented a greater mandibular protrusion, more horizontal growth pattern and more protruded and proclinated maxillary incisors. However, blacks, when compared to afrocaucasian and whites, presented a greater maxillomandibular discrepancy, a greater facial convexity, a greater protrusion of mandibular incisors and a more acute nasolabial angle. There was sexual dimorphism in some cephalometric variables in the three ethnic groups.

Com o propósito de apresentar um padrão cefalométrico específico para os jovens brasileiros feodermas, este estudo objetivou obter os valores médios de normalidade para algumas das variáveis cefalométricas dentárias e verificar a presença de dimorfismo entre os gêneros. A amostra constituiu-se de 40 telerradiografias, em norma lateral, sendo 20 do gênero masculino, com idade média de 13,25 anos (idade mínima de 12,20 anos e máxima de 14,30 anos), e 20 do gênero feminino, com idade média de 13,10 anos (idade mínima de 12,00 anos e máxima de 14,21 anos), obtidas em jovens brasileiros, feodermas (mulatos ou pardos), não submetidos ao tratamento ortodôntico e que apresentavam \"oclusão normal\". As variáveis cefalométricas dentárias foram determinadas de acordo com as análises de DOWNS, STEINER, RIEDEL, TWEED, McNAMARA, RICKETTS. Os valores foram submetidos à análise estatística pelo teste \"t\" independente para comparar as variáveis entre os gêneros. De acordo com os resultados e a metodologia aplicada, pode-se concluir que os incisivos superiores e inferiores apresentaram-se protruídos e inclinados para vestibular. Não ocorreu diferença estatística significante entre os gêneros para as treze variáveis dentárias avaliadas. / The purpose of this study was to present a specific cephalometric dental pattern for young Brazilian afrocaucasian descendents, by obtaining the mean values of some dental cephalometric variables, and to analyse the prevalence or absence of dimorphism between genders. The sample comprised 40 lateral cephalograms, 20 of male (mean age of 13.15 years) and 20 of female (mean age of 13.10 years) subjects. All subjects were offspring from the miscegenation of Brazilian African and Caucasian adults. All subjects presented permanent dentition in occlusion, except for the third molars, and had not received previous orthodontic treatment. Cephalometric dental measurements were performed following the analyses of DOWNS, STEINER, RIEDEL, TWEED, McNAMARA, RICKETTS. Comparison between genders was performed by the independent \"t\" test. Data obtained from this methodology confirmed the absence of dimorphism between genders. Additionally, protrusion and buccal tipping of maxillary and mandibular incisors were observed, thus evidencing the adoption of a specific cephalometric pattern for this population.