Giant stars are believed to lose significant fractions of their total mass over their lifetimes, but the mechanisms responsible for this are ill-understood. One possible mechanism is dynamical mass loss - a hydrodynamical process in which matter is ejected from the stellar surface in ballistic outflows. In this thesis, dynamical mass loss is studied in three stellar regimes: common-envelope objects, asymptotic giant branch stars, and red supergiants. Using hydrodynamical simulations performed with the stellar evolution code MESA, we examine the dynamical behaviour and stability of stars in each of these regimes. We examine the dynamical properties of common-envelope objects during the slow spiral-in phase using a parameterised 1-dimensional model of orbital dissipatory heating. We find that the envelope becomes unstable to high-amplitude dynamical pulsations that can lead to repeated mass-ejection events capable of removing the entire envelope and terminating the common-envelope phase. We estimate this process's α efficiency value and suggest how these results might be employed in parameterised common-envelope models. We employ coupled evolutionary and hydrodynamical simulations of AGB stars to study their dynamical properties as they traverse the TP-AGB and examine their dependence on basic stellar properties and on the thermal pulse cycle. We find that these models experience large amounts of dynamical mass loss, and we construct a parameterised model to estimate its strength. We find that this model is successful at locating the termination of the AGB. We apply a similar approach to a study of RSGs, and find that dynamical mass loss also emerges in this regime. We estimate the conditions under which this occurs and discuss how this mechanism may resolve theoretical problems relating to the Humphreys-Davidson limit and the progenitors of SNe IIn. We conclude that dynamical mass loss is likely to form a vital part of the mass-loss histories of cool giant stars.

Post asymptotic giant branch (post-AGB) stars, central stars of planetary nebulae (CSPNe) and planetary nebulae (PNe) are important phases of stellar evolution as the material they feedback is the seed of subsequent star formation in a galaxy. The majority of low and intermediate mass stars are expected to evolve through these channels, however, it is uncertain how many actually do, and at what rate. The Galactic halo, with its older population, provides a direct test of evolutionary models for low mass stars. Birthrate estimates of PNe are uncertain and worse still, are in contradiction with accepted white dwarf (WD) birthrate estimates. Much of the uncertainty stems from the lack of complete samples and poorly determined distance estimates. New surveys such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), Galaxy Evolutionary Ex- plorer (GALEX) and the INT Photometric H® Survey (IPHAS) have discovered many new PNe and have observed the far edges of the Galaxy. Improved methods of determining distances to CSPNe are presented here, using model atmospheres, evolutionary tracks and high resolution reddening maps utilising these revolution- ary surveys. Locating the CSPN is non-trivial particularly for evolved PNe, as they are ex- tended with their central star often displaced from the centre of the nebula. There- fore, photometric criteria are required to locate the CSPN in the nebula’s field. Synthetic photometry of the CSPNe is derived from spectral energy distributions (SEDs) computed from a grid of model atmospheres covering the parameter range of CSPNe. The SEDs are convolved with filter transmission curves to compute synthetic magnitudes for a given photometric system which are then calibrated with standard stars and WDs. A further project borne out of a search for luminous central stars of faint PNe, resulted in a systematic search for post-AGB stars in the Galactic halo. In this work, new candidate halo post-AGB stars are discovered from a search through the SDSS spectroscopic database. Combined with previously identified halo post- AGB stars, including the results of a sub-sample from the Palomar-Green (PG) survey, the number of observed and predicted populations are compared. The number of observed post-AGB candidates shows a remarkable deficit to expecta- tions. A survey within a subset of the photometric database of SDSS supports the findings of the PG and SDSS spectroscopic surveys. These findings provide strong evidence for a lack of post-AGB stars in the Galac- tic halo and thick disc. A plausible explanation is that a large fraction of stars in these old, metal-poor populations are evolving via alternative channels. The implications of such a result are far reaching with knock on effects for stellar evolutionary theory, galactic evolution and extragalactic redshift estimates.

Šiuolaikiniai astronominiai stebėjimai leidžia įtarti, kad „standartinis“ žvaigždžių evoliucijos modelis yra nepilnas ir turi būti patikslintas, įvedant „papildomą“ maišymąsi. Disertacija yra skirta Galaktikos raudonosios sankaupos žvaigždžių cheminės sudėties tyrimui ir maišymosi procesų sukeltų cheminės sudėties pokyčių mažos masės žvaigždžių atmosferose tyrimui bei papildomo maišymosi teorinių modelių įvertinimui. Tam tikslui buvo gauti ir ištirti 62-jų Galaktikos raudonosios sankaupos žvaigždžių ir 9 padrikojo spiečiaus NGC 7789 žvaigždžių didelės skiriamosios gebos spektrai, nustatyti žvaigždžių pagrindiniai parametrai ir cheminė sudėtis. Tyrimas patvirtino hipotezę, kad Galaktikos sankaupos žvaigždės yra santykinai jauni Saulės metalingumo objektai, susiformavę per pastaruosius keletą milijardų metų. Tirtose žvaigždėse buvo įvertintos maišymosi procesų pasekmėje pasikeitusių anglies ir azoto gausų vertės. Pademonstruota, kad sankaupos žvaigždės gali būti išskirtos į skirtingas evoliucines grupes pagal 12C/13C kriterijų. Nustatyta, kad anglies izotopų santykių vertes Galaktikos sankaupos žvaigždžių atmosferose gerai aprašo šaltojo žemutinių sluoksnių papildomo maišymosi modelis, tuo tarpu termohalinio papildomo maišymosi modelis turi būti papildytas, kad sutaptų su visais stebėjimų rezultatais. Nustatyta, kad anglies izotopų santykiai spiečiaus žvaigždėse yra labiau paveikti maišymosi procesų nei numato dabartiniai teoriniai žvaigždžių evoliucijos modeliai. / Modern observations provide evidences that the ‘standard’ stellar evolution model is incomplete and should take into account ‘extra’-mixing processes. This dissertation is dedicated to an observational study of the Galactic red clump as well as to investigations of evolutionary effects in atmospheres of low-mass helium-core burning stars and evaluation of theoretical models of extra-mixing processes in interiors of stars. For this purpose, the high-resolution spectra of 62 Galactic red clump stars and 9 evolved stars of the old open cluster NGC 7789 have been analysed and the main atmospheric parameters and chemical compositions were determined. The investigation confirmed the hypothesis that clump stars of the Galaxy are relatively young objects, reflecting mainly the near–solar metallicities developed in the local disk during the last few billion years of its history. Mixing induced carbon and nitrogen abundance modifications in the Galactic clump stars were investigated. The clump stars can be divided into distinct evolutionary groups using the 12C/13C criterion. The carbon isotope ratios of the Galactic clump stars are consistent with the Cool Bottom Processing (CBP) extra-mixing model; the Thermohaline extra-mixing model needs to be complemented in order to agree with observational data. The carbon isotope ratios in the NGC 7789 stars indicate a larger extra–mixing than it is foreseen by theoretical models.

Modern observations provide evidences that the ‘standard’ stellar evolution model is incomplete and should take into account ‘extra’-mixing processes. This dissertation is dedicated to an observational study of the Galactic red clump as well as to investigations of evolutionary effects in atmospheres of low-mass helium-core burning stars and evaluation of theoretical models of extra-mixing processes in interiors of stars. For this purpose, the high-resolution spectra of 62 Galactic red clump stars and 9 evolved stars of the old open cluster NGC 7789 have been analysed and the main atmospheric parameters and chemical compositions were determined. The investigation confirmed the hypothesis that clump stars of the Galaxy are relatively young objects, reflecting mainly the near–solar metallicities developed in the local disk during the last few billion years of its history. Mixing induced carbon and nitrogen abundance modifications in the Galactic clump stars were investigated. The clump stars can be divided into distinct evolutionary groups using the 12C/13C criterion. The carbon isotope ratios of the Galactic clump stars are consistent with the Cool Bottom Processing (CBP) extra-mixing model; the Thermohaline extra-mixing model needs to be complemented in order to agree with observational data. The carbon isotope ratios in the NGC 7789 stars indicate a larger extra–mixing than it is foreseen by theoretical models. / Šiuolaikiniai astronominiai stebėjimai leidžia įtarti, kad „standartinis“ žvaigždžių evoliucijos modelis yra nepilnas ir turi būti patikslintas, įvedant „papildomą“ maišymąsi. Disertacija yra skirta Galaktikos raudonosios sankaupos žvaigždžių cheminės sudėties tyrimui ir maišymosi procesų sukeltų cheminės sudėties pokyčių mažos masės žvaigždžių atmosferose tyrimui bei papildomo maišymosi teorinių modelių įvertinimui. Tam tikslui buvo gauti ir ištirti 62-jų Galaktikos raudonosios sankaupos žvaigždžių ir 9 padrikojo spiečiaus NGC 7789 žvaigždžių didelės skiriamosios gebos spektrai, nustatyti žvaigždžių pagrindiniai parametrai ir cheminė sudėtis. Tyrimas patvirtino hipotezę, kad Galaktikos sankaupos žvaigždės yra santykinai jauni Saulės metalingumo objektai, susiformavę per pastaruosius keletą milijardų metų. Tirtose žvaigždėse buvo įvertintos maišymosi procesų pasekmėje pasikeitusių anglies ir azoto gausų vertės. Pademonstruota, kad sankaupos žvaigždės gali būti išskirtos į skirtingas evoliucines grupes pagal 12C/13C kriterijų. Nustatyta, kad anglies izotopų santykių vertes Galaktikos sankaupos žvaigždžių atmosferose gerai aprašo šaltojo žemutinių sluoksnių papildomo maišymosi modelis, tuo tarpu termohalinio papildomo maišymosi modelis turi būti papildytas, kad sutaptų su visais stebėjimų rezultatais. Nustatyta, kad anglies izotopų santykiai spiečiaus žvaigždėse yra labiau paveikti maišymosi procesų nei numato dabartiniai teoriniai žvaigždžių evoliucijos modeliai.

In this thesis a critical assessment of the ages derived using theoretical pre-main-sequence (pre-MS) stellar evolutionary models is presented by comparing the predictions to the low-mass pre-MS population of 14 young star-forming regions (SFRs) in colour-magnitude diagrams (CMDs). Deriving pre-MS ages requires precise distances and estimates of the reddening. Therefore, the main-sequence (MS) members of the SFRs have been used to derive a self-consistent set of statistically robust ages, distances and reddenings with associated uncertainties using a maximum-likelihood fitting statistic and MS evolutionary models. A photometric method (known as the Q-method) for de-reddening individual stars in regions where the extinction is spatially variable has been updated and is presented. The effects of both the model dependency and the SFR composition on these derived parameters are also discussed. The problem of calibrating photometric observations of red pre-MS stars is examined and it is shown that using observations of MS stars to transform the data into a standard photometric system can introduce significant errors in the position of the pre-MS locus in CMD space. Hence, it is crucial that precise photometric studies (especially of pre- MS objects) be carried out in the natural photometric system of the observations. This therefore requires a robust model of the system responses for the instrument used, and thus the calculated responses for the Wide-Field Camera on the Isaac Newton Telescope are presented. These system responses have been tested using standard star observations and have been shown to be a good representation of the photometric system. A benchmark test for the pre-MS evolutionary models is performed by comparing them to a set of well-calibrated CMDs of the Pleiades in the wavelength regime 0.4−2.5 μm. The masses predicted by these models are also tested against dynamical masses using a sample of MS binaries by calculating the system magnitude in a given photometric band- pass. This analysis shows that for Teff ≤ 4000 K the models systematically overestimate the flux by a factor of 2 at 0.5 μm, though this decreases with wavelength, becoming negligible at 2.2 μm. Thus before the pre-MS models are used to derive ages, a recalibration of the models is performed by incorporating an empirical colour-Teff relation and bolometric corrections based on the Ks-band luminosity of Pleiades members, with theoretical corrections for the dependence on the surface gravity (log g). The recalibrated pre-MS model isochrones are used to derive ages from the pre-MS populations of the SFRs. These ages are then compared with the MS derivations, thus providing a powerful diagnostic tool with which to discriminate between the different pre- MS age scales that arise from a much stronger model dependency in the pre-MS regime. The revised ages assigned to each of the 14 SFRs are up to a factor two older than previous derivations, a result with wide-ranging implications, including that circumstellar discs survive longer and that the average Class II lifetime is greater than currently believed.