The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of physical activity on cytokine production in healthy older males. Twelve males (six very active, six less active) ages 65 to 74 were recruited for this study. Blood was obtained at rest and serum concentrations for MIP-I a, IL-1 ra, IL-6 and IL-10 were measured. No difference was found in MIP-la and IL-Ira concentrations between the two groups. The serum concentration of IL-6 was significantly lower (p = 0.016) in the very active group compared to the less active group. The very active group had a significantly higher (p = 0.016) concentration of IL-10 compared to the less active group. The beneficial influence of physical activity on cytokine production is clinically important because of the role of IL-6 and IL-10 in disease development in older adults. Through influencing cytokine concentrations, our results provide further insights into the role of physical activity in attenuating the effects of aging. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to examine collegiate female swimmers' attitudes toward gender and coaching. The study also examined the coaching styles of male and females coaches and determined whether a difference between styles existed. A purposeful sample of 250 female swimmers from the Mid-American Conference (MAC) during the 2001-2002 swimming season participated in the study. Swimmers were required to have been coached by both female and male coaches in order to be eligible to participate. Addressing the purpose of this study, participants were asked to complete a 30-item questionnaire developed by the researcher. Frequency counts revealed that 23 of the 57 participants preferred a male coach to a female coach. Only two individuals reported their preference for a female with 32 participants citing no gender preference. Two sections, including 14 questions for each gender on the Gender Preference Instrument, assessed coaching style. Independent t -tests were calculated on each question (p < .05). Eight significant gender differences were observed on coaching styles, with the participating athletes scoring the male coach higher on all of the eight categories. / School of Physical Education

Eleven male triathletes were studied to determine the relationships between selected metabolic measurements and triathlon performance. Measurements were made for oxygen consumption (V02), pulmonary ventilation (Ve) and heart rate (HR) during submaximal and maximal 400-yd freestyle swimming (FS), cycle ergometry (CE) and treadmill running (TR). Submaximal workloads were 1 m/sec for swimming, 200 watts for cycling and 7.5 mph for running. The mean (1/min) was significantly (P<0.05) lower during 1/min) than CE (4.68 1/sin) or TR (4.81 1/min). cycling and running performance times during the (1.2 mile swim, 56 mile cycle, 13.1 mile run) were to have a low relationship to V0z max (ml/kg/min) -0.32 and -0.55, respectively. The V0z max when expressed as 1/min was found to significantly (P<0.05) related to cycling time (r=-0.70). However, at a selected workload the %VO2 max was found to be highly related to swimming (0.91), cycling (0.78) and running (0.86) performance times. Maximal HR (bts/min) was also observed to be significantly (P<0.05) lower during FS (163) than CE (176) or TR (183). Running and cycling times in the triathlon were highly correlated (P<0.05) to overall triathlon performance times, 0.97 and 0.81, respectively, whereas swimming was found to be less a contributor to the athlete's final time, r=0.30. This study suggests that economy of effort is of greater importance to a triathlete's performance than their maximal oxygen uptake.

While a great deal of research has been directed towards the phenomena of excess post exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC), the effect of thermal stress on EPOC is not well defined. To assess the effect of heat stress on EPOC, seven healthy, active subjects (4 female, 3 male; 23.9 ± 2.0 years of age) performed 4 trials: one control (quiet rest) and one exercise (45 minutes of cycling at 65% VO2max workload) trial in moderate (23° C, 50% humidity) and hot (35° C, 50% humidity) environments. Oxygen consumption (V02), heart rate (HR) and rectal temperature (RT) were assessed pre, during and post control or exercise. Subjects were monitored until post exercise VO2 had returned to within ±2% of baseline. EPOC was determined by subtracting baseline VO2 from total V02 during the post exercise period. During the first 15 minutes (acute) post exercise, a significant EPOC (p = 0.0019) was seen in both exercise conditions over both control conditions. During the slow phase (> 15 minutes post exercise to baseline), there was no significant difference between the hot control (HC), moderate exercise (ME), or hot exercise (HE) EPOC. Total time post exercise until baseline was achieved was 35, 44, and 51 minutes for HC, ME, and HE respectively. HR was significantly elevated in both exercise conditions. During the acute post exercise period, HR in HE was elevated above MC, ME and HC (p < 0.05). RT was elevated in both exercise conditions during and post exercise. The present data indicate that heat stress does not have a significant effect on the magnitude or duration of EPOC. / School of Physical Education

To determine the influence of muscle mass and absolute work on glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity following exercise, glucose and insulin responses to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) were analyzed in twelve subjects at baseline and 16 to 18 hrs following three different exercise trials performed on a cycle ergometer: 1) two-legged exercise at 60% of two-leg maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), 2) one-legged exercise at 60% of the oneleg VO2max, and 3) a second one-leg trial at 60% of one-leg VO2max with work matched to the work obtained during the two-leg trial. Each trial was preceeded by two days of inactivity and a three day diet replication. Analysis of serum glucose concentrations during the post-exercise OGTTs demonstrated that glucose tolerance was unaffected by either the amount of active tissue incorporated in the exercise and/or the amount of work completed by the active tissue. On the other hand, serum insulin concentrations following the two-leg trial decreased 23.5% from 347.62 ±37.98 to 266.05 :L41.62 gU/ml in comparison to the one-leg trial (p < 0.05). The incorporation of a smaller muscle mass which completed an equal amount of absolute work as the larger muscle mass (i.e. one-leg work matched trial) resulted in a large (19%), but nonsignificant reduction in the total insulin compared to the one-leg relative work trial. In addition, total insulin following the two-leg and the one-leg work matched trials were reduced by 19% and 14%, respectively, in comparison to baseline. However, they did not reach statistical significance. The results of this study indicate that the incorporation of a larger muscle mass during an acute bout of aerobic exercise results in a reduction in serum insulin in response to a post-exercise oral glucose challenge. In addition, increasing the absolute work of a muscle mass results in similar reductions in serum insulin regardless of the amount of muscle mass involved in the exercise. While glucose tolerance was unaltered by either the amount of active tissue and/or the amount of work completed by the active tissue. / School of Physical Education

Considerable research has been performed on the effects of exercise and glucose tolerance, however, most of this work has examined aerobic exercise designs. This study examines the immediate post-exercise glucose turnover in eight male subjects exposed to a single bout of running and PRE. Both exercise protocols were designed to be of similar duration and at an intensity representing a typical exercise session. This study was conducted in an effort to offer individuals with NIDDM an alternative to the established aerobic forms of exercise for improved glucose control. Each subject completed two preliminary procedures, which consisted of a maximal graded exercise test and a session where a 1 RM was established on six different Cybex variable resistance machines. Subjects then completed a baseline oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in which eight blood samples were analyzed for glucose, insulin, hemoglobin, and hematocrit. Two exercise protocols, separated by 3 to 10 days, consisting of a 40 minute treadmill run at 75% VO2max and a 40 minute, 3 set x 10 repetition based on 75% of the1 RM, were performed and followed 45 minutes later by another OGTT. The results demonstrated that there were no apparent differences in blood glucose or insulin levels post-exercise between the exercise modes. However, the form of exercise did seem to have a varied effect on insulin production. The results of the OGTT demonstrated an explicit difference in the insulin response between the lifting and running trials, with the lifting trial being significantly higher than the resting or running trials. The increased insulin levels observed in the lifting trial may be indicative of increased secretion from the pancreas or that the secreted insulin is simply not being used. The insulin resistance observed in the lifting trial may be due to the muscles inability to respond to insulin or some other metabolic factor(s) released during exercise. Additional studies should be performed on different populations to examine the effects of PRE and running in a effort to better understand the mechanisms responsible for glucose uptake. / School of Physical Education

Maintenance of adequate muscle glycogen stores has been shown to be essential for endurance performance. For athletes who train on successive days or twice in the same day it is especially important that feeding strategies result in optimal glycogen resynthesis between workouts. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if prior carbohydrate feedings and the form of the carbohydrate consumed affected subsequent endurance performance. Seven endurance trained male cyclists agreed to participate in this study. Each day of testing consisted of two exercise bouts. The first workout was an anaerobic workout consisting of five one minute efforts at 115% VO2max followed by a sprint ride to exhaustion. Each of the sprints was separated from the next by a four minute rest period. For the final ride, the subjects rode at 115% of VO2max. One hour following the completion of the first workout, the subjects began a feeding regimen in which one of four carbohydrate sources were ingested in an amount calculated to provide 1.5g carbohydrate/kg bodyweight/hr for the next four hours. The trials were grouped by carbohydrate forms, dense chewy solid (Powerbars) (DCS), liquid carbohydrate (Gatorlode) (LCHO), and semi-moist solid (Nabisco Snackwells and Fruit Newtons) (SMS). In addition, a water trial (W) was conducted to serve as a control The second workout occurred six hours after the completion of the anaerobic workout and consisted of a one-hour self-paced performance ride on a cycle ergometer. Performance was measured as work (U) performed during the ride. All carbohydrate forms (824.7±109.6 U) improved performance over water (782.0±121.7 U) (p<0.05). In addition, among the various carbohydrate forms, SMS (843.2±94.4 U) significantly improved performance over LCHO (807.3±141 U) and DCS (805.3±115 U) (p<0.05). Carbohydrate feedings between anaerobic and aerobic workouts in the same day improve performance. Also, the physical form of the carbohydrate influences performance. / School of Physical Education

The present study was designed to evaluate the influence of carbohydrate structure on muscle glycogen resynthesis. Eight college-aged male cyclists performed a depletion exercise protocol to decrease vastus lateralis glycogen concentration. This protocol consisted of 60 min of cycling at 75% V O2max, followed by 6 - one min sprints at 125 % V O2max, with a 1 min rest between each sprint. Following the depletion exercise, the subjects consumed - 3000 kcal over a 12 hour period, which was calculated to meet each subject's estimated daily energy expenditure. The carbohydrate (CHO), fat and protein content represented 65:20:15% of the calories consumed, respectively, and totaled 450 - 550 g of CHO. All of the CHO was derived from 1 of 4 solutions: 1) glucose, 2) maltodextrin (glucose polymer), 3) waxy starch (100% amylopectin), or 4) resistant starch (100% amylose). Muscle biopsies were taken after the depletion exercise protocol and 24 hours after the depletion protocol to determine glycogen concentrations. The postdepletion exercise glycogen concentration was similar in all 4 trials, and averaged 234.7 mmol/kg dry weight (d.w.) muscle. Twenty-four hours after exercise, the increase in muscle glycogen concentration was less in the resistant starch trial (90.8 f 12.8 mmol/kg d.w.) than in the glucose, maltodextrin and waxy starch trials, in which glycogen concentration increased 168.7 mmol/kg d.w. Following the 24 h post-depletion exercise biopsy, each subject performed a 30 min cycling time trial, so that the relationship between muscle glycogen concentration and performance could be examined. There were no differences in work output during the time trial or blood lactate concentration immediately following the time trial in any of the trials. In summary, glycogen resynthesis is attenuated following ingestion of carbohydrate with a high amylose content, relative to amylopectin or glucose; however, short duration performance at intensities < 75% VO2max is unaffected. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to develop a prediction equation for peak oxygen uptake using the Modified BSU Ramp protocol. Thirty-four subjects (14 men and 20 women, age 32-83 years) completed the standard Ball State University Adult Physical Fitness Program quiet and exercise testing sessions, with the maximal exercise test conducted with the Modified BSU Ramp protocol. The modified ramp protocol increases speed and grade every 20 seconds, and it increases by - 0.15 METs every increment for the first 6 minutes and --0.3 METs per increment thereafter. The Modified BSU ramp protocol was developed to allow for reasonable exercise test times from a standardized ramp protocol with individuals with low functional capacities < 10 METs. Pre-test procedures included height and weight measurements, resting blood pressure, resting heart rate, body fat measures, a blood lipid profile, and resting electrocardiogram (ECG). Exercise testing included ECG, heart rate, and blood pressure that were recorded prior to, during, and in the recovery phase of exercise. Subjects were instructed to continue exercise until fatigue, and respiratory gases were collected to determine V02 . Data was then analyzed using multiple regression techniques. Gender, age, body weight, and treadmill test time were the significant predictors, which were used in the regression equation (R2 = 0.586, SEE = 3.54 ml-kg-'.min'). An equation was developed from the lone predictor, treadmill test time with R2 = .37 and SEE = 4.1 ml•kg'•min'. The equation is as follows: VOA = 4.932 + 1.934 (test time (min)). Of the tests conducted on the Modified BSU ramp protocol, 82% were within an "ideal" test time window of 812 minutes, and 97% were within an "acceptable" test time window of 6-15 minutes. In conclusion, VOA can be estimated with acceptable accuracy (i.e. SEE - ± I MET) from the Modified BSU Ramp protocol, and for clinical purposes it is a suitable protocol to use when testing low fit individuals. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of group nutrition and physical activity education classes in lowering cholesterol levels of worksite employees at 6-and 12-month intervals. A total of 32 participants were followed through the study. The group of participants included 24 female and 8 males, all over the age of 40. The data were analyzed using one-way ANOV A with repeated n1easures, post¬hoc analysis, Pearson's correlation coefficient, and ANCOV A to test six null hypotheses. Statistically significant differences in HDL cholesterol levels were found between baseline and 12 months (p=O.OOO) and between 6 months and 12 months (p=O.OOO). Statistically significant differences were also found in TCIHDL cholesterol ratios between baseline and 12 months (p=0.02) and between 6 months and 12 months (p=0.021). / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences