Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2005. / Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xxii, 306 p.; also includes graphics. Includes bibliographical references (p. 290-306). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

Using energy more efficiently is essential if carbon emissions are to be reduced. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), energy efficiency improvements represent the largest and least costly savings in carbon emissions, even when compared with renewables, nuclear power and carbon capture and storage. Yet, how should future priorities be directed? Should efforts be focused on light bulbs or diesel engines, insulating houses or improving coal-fired power stations? Previous attempts to assess energy efficiency options provide a useful snapshot for directing short-term responses, but are limited to only known technologies developed under current economic conditions. Tomorrow's economic drivers are not easy to forecast, and new technical solutions often present in a disruptive manner. Fortunately, the theoretical and practical efficiency limits do not vary with time, allowingthe uncertainty of economic forecasts to be avoided and the potential of yet to be discovered efficient designs to be captured. This research aims to provide a rational basis for assessing all future developments in energy efficiency. The global fow of energy through technical devices is traced from fuels to final services, and presented as an energy map to convey visually the scale of energy use. An important distinction is made between conversion devices, which upgrade energy into more useable forms, and passive systems, from which energy is lost as low temperature heat, in exchange for final services. Theoretical efficiency limits are calculated for conversion devices using exergy analysis, and show a 89% potential reduction in energy use. Efforts should befocused on improving the efficiency of, in relative order: biomass burners, refrigeration systems, gas burners and petrol engines. For passive systems, practical utilisation limits are calculated based on engineering models, and demonstrate energy savings of 73% are achievable. Significant gains are found in technical solutions that increase the thermal insulation of building fabrics and reduce the mass of vehicles. The result of this work is a consistent basis for comparing efficiency options, that can enable future technical research and energy policy tobe directed towards the actions that will make the most difference.

O presente trabalho procura estudar e compreender os processos reativos de chama, tentando identificá-los através de uma abordagem químico termodinâmica, em contraposição às análises clássicas, puramente cinético-químicas. Estas são justificadas por se considerar este tipo de fenômeno como existindo em condições distantes da condição de equilíbrio termodinâmico e não passíveis de análise termodinâmica, coisa que, através desta investigação, pretende-se questionar. Neste estudo, considerou-se a chama como ocorrendo em um escoamento unidimensional ideal, em regime permanente, em fluido perfeito, i.e. não há viscosidade e dividiu-se a chama em fatias, em que a exergia química era transformada em exergia térmica, em se adaptando \"o problema do tijolo aquecido\" (ou \"hot brick problem\"). O processo reativo global de chama adiabática foi, por evidência experimental, considerado como sendo bi-variante i.e. completamente determinado com a definição da pressão e da temperatura dos reagentes, conhecidos a priori, em espécie e em quantidade. O teorema de Duhem1 nos garante, portanto, que caso se estabeleça o equilíbrio, este estaria determinado. Aqui se procurou reunir subsídios para sua identificação. Investigaram-se a modelagem de chamas adiabáticas e reversíveis de duas fatias, consideradas como meio efetivo, em se igualando a exergia química à exergia térmica, bem como o que se considerou como sendo chamas adiabáticas de duas fatias de máxima irreversibilidade interna. Para a chama adiabática irreversível obteve-se temperaturas de ignição próximas à temperatura de autoignição para 4 de 6 combustíveis. Por fim, conclui-se que a chama contínua não é o limite da chama irreversível de infinitas fatias. Enquanto que aquela tem irreversibilidade máxima, segundo o modelo apresentado, a irreversibilidade desta é um máximo relativo. / The present study attempts at an understanding of the reactive processes within a flame. A chemical thermodynamics approach is employed in juxtaposition to the classical analysis which are purely chemical kinetic. These are justified because this phenomenum is considered to take place far from equilibrium conditions and not subject to thermodynamic analysis. This fact will be questioned in this study. A one-dimensional, ideal and steady flow flame was considered. The reactive process of an adiabatic flame was, by experimental evidence, considered to possess two degrees of freedom, i.e it would be completely determined by defining the reactants\' pressure and temperature, whose species and quantities were a priori known. Duhem\'s theorem2 tells us that if equilibrium is estabilished, it would be fully determined. An adiabatic and reversible two-sliced flame (the effective medium) was determined by equating the chemical exergy of the flame to the physical exergy of the two slices relative to the ignition point. Also, the constrained extremum of the difference between the chemical and physical exergies allowed the relative maximum of an internally irreversible adiabatic flame to be determined. For the irreversible flame, close simulation of the autoignition temperature for 4 of 6 fuels was obtained. Finally, the conclusion that a continuous flame is not the limit of an irreversible flame with infinite slices is demonstrated. Whilst that flame is the flame with maximum irreversibility, this flame has a relative maximum of internal irreversibility.

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Though mandatory to be pursued, improved energy efficiency is not the only target to reach. The quality of energy has to be assessed as well. Most of the overall energy use in residential building is for low temperature heat, i.e. temperatures relatively close to the outdoor conditions. From a thermodynamic point of view, this is a degraded form of energy with low potential to be converted into work. On the other hand energy demand is mostly met with high quality energy, such as electricity and natural gas. There is a mismatch between supply and demand, which is not clearly shown by the sole energy analysis. Target of this thesis is to analyze the energy use in buildings from the point of view of its quality, to provide effective theoretical and calculation tools to investigate this mismatch, to assess its magnitudo and to propose improvements aiming at a more rational use of the energy. The idea behind the quality is clarified with the concept of exergy. The potential for improvement in space heating is shown. In no heating system the overall exergy efficiency is above 20%, with fossil fuels. Using direct electricity heating results in exergy efficiency below 7%. Most of the household appliances processes have low-exergy factors but still are supplied with electricity. This results in poor exergy efficiencies and large exergy losses. Systems are poorly performing because little consideration is explicitly given to energy quality. Policies to lower the energy demand, though vital as first step towards an improved use of energy, should not neglect the exergy content. The problem is then shifted to find suitable supplies. Electricity can be exploited with low exergy losses with high-COP heat pumps. Use of fossil fuels for heating purposes should be avoided. District heating from cogeneration and geothermal proves to be a suitable solution at the building level. The issues connected to its exploitation forces to shift the boundary layers of the analysis from the building level to the community level. A rational use of energy should address the community level. The system boundaries have to be enlarged to a dimension where both the energy conversion and use take place with reduced energy transportation losses. This is a cost-effective way to avoid the waste of the exergy potential of the sources with exergy cascade and to make it possible the integration of with renewable sources. Exergy efficiency of the buildings is a prerequisite for a better of energy in this field. / IEA ECBCS Annex 49: Low Exergy Systems for High Performance Buildings and Communities / ESF Cost C24: Analysis and Design of Innovative Systems for Low-EXergy in the Built Environment: COSTeXergy

This thesis work presents detailed results of the application of energy- and exergy-based methods to the integrated synthesis/design of an Air-to-Air Fighter (AAF) aircraft with and without wing-morphing capability. In particular, a morphing-wing AAF is compared to a traditional fixed-wing AAF by applying large-scale optimization using exergy- and energy-based objective functions to the synthesis/design and operation of the AAF which consists of an Airframe Subsystem (AFS-A) and Propulsion Subsystem (PS). A number of key synthesis/design and operational decision variables are identified which govern the performance of the AFS-A and PS during flight, and detailed models of the components of each of the subsystems are developed. Rates of exergy destruction and exergy loss resulting from irreversible loss mechanisms are determined in each of the AAF vehicle subsystems and their respective components. Multiple optimizations are performed on both types of AAF for a typical fighter aircraft mission consisting of 22 segments. Four different objective functions are used in order to compare exergy-based performance measures to the more traditional energy-based ones. The results show that the morphing-wing AAF syntheses/designs outperform those for the fixed-wing aircraft in terms of exergy destroyed/lost and fuel consumed. These results also show that the exergy-based objectives not only produce the "best" of the optimal syntheses/designs for both types of AAF in terms of exergy destroyed/lost and fuel consumed but as well provide details of where in each subsystem/component and how much specifically each source of irreversibility contributes to the optimal syntheses/designs found. This is not directly possible with an energy-based approach. Finally, after completion of the synthesis/design optimizations, a parametric study is performed to explore the effect on morphing-wing effectiveness of changing the weight and energy penalties used to model the actuations required for morphing. The results show that the morphing-wing AAF exhibits significant benefits over the fixed-wing aircraft even for unrealistic weight and energy penalties. / Master of Science

This thesis presents results of the application of energy-based large-scale optimization of a two-subsystem (propulsion subsystem (PS) and airframe subsystem-aerodynamics (AFS-A)) air-to-air fighter (AAF) with two types of AFS-A models: a fixed-wing AFS-A and a morphing-wing AFS-A. The AAF flies 19 mission segments of a supersonic fighter aircraft mission and the results of the study show that for very large structural weight penalties and fuel penalties applied to account for the morphing technology, the morphing-wing aircraft can significantly outperform a fixed-wing AAF counterpart in terms of fuel burned over the mission. The optimization drives the fixed-wing AAF wing-geometry design to be at its best flying the supersonic mission segment, while the morphing-wing AFS-A wing design is able to effectively adapt to different flight conditions, cruising at subsonic speeds much more efficiently than the fixed-wing AAF and, thus yielding significant fuel savings. Also presented in this thesis are partially optimized results of the application of a decomposition strategy for large-scale optimization applied to a nine-subsystem AAF consisting of a morphing-wing AFS-A, turbofan propulsion subsystem (PS), environmental controls subsystem (ECS), fuel loop subsystem (FLS), vapor compression/polyalphaolefin loop subsystem (VC/PAOS), electrical subsystem (ES), central hydraulics subsystem (CHS), oil loop subsystem (OLS), and flight controls subsystem (FCS). The decomposition strategy called Iterative Local-Global Optimization (ILGO) is incorporated into a new engineering aircraft simulation and optimization software called iSCRIPT™ which also incorporates the models developed as part of this thesis work for the nine-subsystem AAF. The AAF flies 21 mission segments of a supersonic fighter aircraft mission with a payload drop simulating a combat situation. The partially optimized results are extrapolated to a synthesis/design which is believed to be close to the system-level optimum using previously published results of the application of ILGO to a five-subsystem AAF to which the partially optimized results of the nine-subsystem AAF compare relatively well. In addition to the optimization results, a parametric study of the morphing AFS-A geometry is conducted. Three mission segments are studied: subsonic climb, subsonic cruise, and supersonic cruise. Four wing geometry parameters are studied: leading-edge wing sweep angle, wing aspect ratio, wing thickness-to-chord ratio, and wing taper ratio. The partially optimized AAF is used as the baseline, and the values for these geometric parameters are increased or decreased up to 20% relative to an established baseline to see the effect, if any, on AAF fuel consumption for these mission segments. The only significant effects seen in any of the mission segments arise from changes in the leading-edge sweep angle and wing aspect ratio. The wing thickness-to-chord ratio shows some effect during the subsonic climb segment, but otherwise shows no effect along with the taper ratio in any of the three mission segments studied. It should be emphasized, however, that these changes are made about a point (i.e. synthesis/design), which is already optimal or nearly so. Thus, the conclusions drawn cannot be generalized to syntheses/designs, which may be far from optimal. Also note that the results upon which these conclusions are based may very likely highlight a weakness in the conceptual-level drag-buildup method used in this thesis work. Further optimization studies using this drag-buildup method may warrant setting the thickness-to-chord ratios and taper ratios rather than having them participate in the optimization as degrees of freedom (DOF). The final set of results is a parametric study conducted to highlight the correlation between the fuel consumption and the total exergy destruction in the AFS-A. The results for the subsonic cruise and supersonic cruise mission segments show that at least for the case when the AFS-A is optimized by itself for a fixed specific fuel consumption that there is a direct correlation between the fuel burned and total exergy destruction. However, as shown in earlier work where a three-subsystem AAF with AFS-A, PS, and ECS is optimized, this may not always be the case. Furthermore, based on the results presented in this thesis, there is a smoothing effect observed in the exergy response curves compared to the fuel-burned response curves to changes in AFS-A geometry. This indicates that the exergy destruction is slightly less sensitive to such changes. / Master of Science

A análise exergética é aplicada ao ser humano para avaliar a qualidade dos processos de conversão de energia no corpo e seus sistemas, assim como nos processos bioquímicos do metabolismo. Sabe-se que a vida tem um início, um desenvolvimento e um fim, ou seja, um típico exemplo de processo irreversível. Como tanto a idade cronológica como a entropia gerada são grandezas positivas (caminham no mesmo sentido), esta última passa a ser denominada de flecha do tempo (arrow of time). Assim, a partir da aplicação da Segunda Lei da Termodinâmica, torna-se possível desenvolver e aplicar índices baseados no conceito de exergia destruída/entropia gerada e rendimento exergético para diferentes áreas do conhecimento como medicina (comparação de técnicas de hipotermia), esportes (teste ergoespirométrico) e engenharia (conforto térmico). Para tal, propõe-se um modelo do corpo humano que leva em conta a transferência de exergia para o ambiente, a qual é causada pela radiação, convecção, vaporização e respiração. O metabolismo exergético é calculado com base na variação da exergia de três reações de oxidação: carboidratos, lipídeos e aminoácidos. Para condições ambientais transientes, calcula-se a variação temporal da exergia do corpo, e ainda, o máximo trabalho que o corpo pode executar a partir da hidrólise do ATP (adenosina trifosfato). O corpo humano aproveita aproximadamente 60% da exergia dos macronutrientes ingeridos na forma de ATP, 5% é dissipada na forma de calor e o restante destruída. Se o indivíduo estiver em repouso, toda a exergia da molécula de ATP é destruída ou dissipada na forma de calor. A exergia destruída tende a diminuir em função da idade tanto para condição basal como também para atividades físicas. Calculou-se que a exergia destruída durante uma vida equivale a 3091MJ/kg (ou entropia gerada de 10,2MJ/kgK). O rendimento exergético, no entanto, diminui em decorrência da idade para condição basal, porém aumenta durante atividades físicas. Pode-se ainda afirmar que o corpo destrói menos exergia e é mais eficiente quando submetido a condições de alta temperatura operativa e baixa umidade relativa. A análise exergética acarretou em interpretações complementares ao balanço de energia, pois, a partir de sua aplicação, foi possível distinguir corredores de acordo com o nível de atividade física, ou seja, corredores mais bem treinados podem realizar mais trabalho para o mesmo valor de exergia destruída. Finalmente, foi possível identificar diferentes técnicas de hipotermia tomando por base a comparação das eficiências exergéticas. / Exergy analysis is applied to the human being aiming to assess the quality of the energy conversion processes that take place in the body, its several of systems and in biochemical reactions involved in these processes. It is known that life has a beginning, a development and an end, therefore, it is a typical example if irreversible process. As the chronological age and entropic generation are positive quantities (increases in the same direction), this last one is named arrow of time. Hence, it becomes possible to obtain indices based on the concept of destroyed exergy and exergy efficiency for different areas of knowledge such as: medicine (different techniques of hypothermia), sports (ergoespirometric test) and mechanical engineer (thermal comfort). To this end, it is proposed a model of the human body which takes into account the exergy transfer rates to the environment associated with radiation, convection, vaporization and respiration. The metabolism exergy basis is calculated based on the exergy variation of the reactions of oxidation of three reference substances: carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids. For transient environmental conditions it is calculated the exergy variation of the body over time. Moreover, it is possible to calculate the maximum work that can be obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). This procedure was applied to a thermodynamic model of human body for basal conditions and to experimental results of runners during different level of physical activities. The human body uses about 60% of the exergy of nutrients to obtain ATP, the rest is destroyed or dissipated as heat. Destroyed exergy rate tends to decrease as a function of lifespan (for basal conditions and during physical activities). The destroyed exergy during lifespan was calculated as 3091MJ/kg (or entropy production of 10.2MJ/kgK). The exergy efficiency decreases as a function of age in basal condition, but it increases during physical activities. The destroyed exergy rate is smaller and the exergy efficiency is greater for high operative temperatures and low relative humidities. The exergy analysis led to additional information regarding the First Law of Thermodynamics, because from its application it was possible to differentiate runners according to their training level, for the same destroyed exergy better trained subjects could perform more work. Finally it was possible to distinguish different techniques of hypothermia from the concept of exergy efficiency.

A utilização racional e otimização de recursos energéticos é tema cada vez mais presente na indústria, e busca atender a critérios normativos e aspectos econômicos. Entre os métodos de análise utilizados para verificação e melhoria de eficiência energética, nas últimas décadas a Exergia vem se destacando como a ferramenta mais indicada para esse tipo de avaliação. Esse estudo realiza análise exergética em uma planta de processamento típica de uma plataforma do tipo FPSO operando em águas do litoral brasileiro. Atenção especial é dispensada à planta de compressão de gás, que possui sistema de remoção de CO2 do gás através de membranas. Conforme composição dos poços e/ou restrições operacionais, o fluxo de gás pode ser desviado do sistema de remoção de CO2, criando modos de operação. No modo de operação A todo gás do sistema de remoção de CO2 é desviado, de forma que seja possível apenas a injeção desse gás. O modo B utiliza plenamente o sistema de remoção de forma a permitir exportação máxima de gás. Já o modo de operação C trata parcialmente o gás através desse sistema, de forma a permitir exportação e injeção parciais de gás. Além dos modos de operação, são estudados também os efeitos da variação da vazão de gás exportado e da composição do petróleo (teor de CO2 e BS&W) no balanço exergético da plataforma. A combinação dessas três variáveis (modos de operação, vazão de gás exportado e composição do petróleo) representa 177 cenários de produção. O estudo desses cenários de produção por meio de determinados parâmetros (eficiência exergética, consumo específico de exergia, emissões de CO2, emissões específicas de CO2 e índice de renovabilidade exergética) permite verificar a influência de cada variável na performance da planta. / The rational use of energy resources is a theme increasingly discussed at the Industry, and the energetic optimization of processes is necessary in order to fulfill normative, as well as economic criteria. Among the analysis methods in use for verifying and improving the energetic efficiency, during last decades the Exergy has been highlighted as the most appropriated tool for these evaluations. This study performs exergetic analysis in a typical process plant in a FPSO operating in the brazilian shore waters. Special attention is given to the gas compression process plant, which has a CO2 membranes gas removal system. According to composition of well and/or operational restrictions, the gas flow can be deviated from the CO2 gas removal system, creating the operational modes. The operational mode A deviates all the gas from the CO2 gas removal system, allowing just its injection into the reservoir. The mode B uses entirely the CO2 removal system in a way that a maximum of gas exportation is possible. And the operational mode C treats partially the gas through the system, allowing partial exportation and re-injection of the gas. Besides the operational modes, the influence of export gas flow and well fluid composition (CO2 and BS&W content) in the exergy balance are also evaluated. The combination of these three variables (operational modes, export gas flow rate and well fluids composition) represents 177 production scenarios. The evaluation of these production scenarios affecting specific parameters (exergy efficiency, specific exergetic consumption, CO2 emissions, CO2 specific emissions and exergetic renewability index) allows to identify the importance of each variable in process plant performance.

A utilização racional e otimização de recursos energéticos é tema cada vez mais presente na indústria, e busca atender a critérios normativos e aspectos econômicos. Entre os métodos de análise utilizados para verificação e melhoria de eficiência energética, nas últimas décadas a Exergia vem se destacando como a ferramenta mais indicada para esse tipo de avaliação. Esse estudo realiza análise exergética em uma planta de processamento típica de uma plataforma do tipo FPSO operando em águas do litoral brasileiro. Atenção especial é dispensada à planta de compressão de gás, que possui sistema de remoção de CO2 do gás através de membranas. Conforme composição dos poços e/ou restrições operacionais, o fluxo de gás pode ser desviado do sistema de remoção de CO2, criando modos de operação. No modo de operação A todo gás do sistema de remoção de CO2 é desviado, de forma que seja possível apenas a injeção desse gás. O modo B utiliza plenamente o sistema de remoção de forma a permitir exportação máxima de gás. Já o modo de operação C trata parcialmente o gás através desse sistema, de forma a permitir exportação e injeção parciais de gás. Além dos modos de operação, são estudados também os efeitos da variação da vazão de gás exportado e da composição do petróleo (teor de CO2 e BS&W) no balanço exergético da plataforma. A combinação dessas três variáveis (modos de operação, vazão de gás exportado e composição do petróleo) representa 177 cenários de produção. O estudo desses cenários de produção por meio de determinados parâmetros (eficiência exergética, consumo específico de exergia, emissões de CO2, emissões específicas de CO2 e índice de renovabilidade exergética) permite verificar a influência de cada variável na performance da planta. / The rational use of energy resources is a theme increasingly discussed at the Industry, and the energetic optimization of processes is necessary in order to fulfill normative, as well as economic criteria. Among the analysis methods in use for verifying and improving the energetic efficiency, during last decades the Exergy has been highlighted as the most appropriated tool for these evaluations. This study performs exergetic analysis in a typical process plant in a FPSO operating in the brazilian shore waters. Special attention is given to the gas compression process plant, which has a CO2 membranes gas removal system. According to composition of well and/or operational restrictions, the gas flow can be deviated from the CO2 gas removal system, creating the operational modes. The operational mode A deviates all the gas from the CO2 gas removal system, allowing just its injection into the reservoir. The mode B uses entirely the CO2 removal system in a way that a maximum of gas exportation is possible. And the operational mode C treats partially the gas through the system, allowing partial exportation and re-injection of the gas. Besides the operational modes, the influence of export gas flow and well fluid composition (CO2 and BS&W content) in the exergy balance are also evaluated. The combination of these three variables (operational modes, export gas flow rate and well fluids composition) represents 177 production scenarios. The evaluation of these production scenarios affecting specific parameters (exergy efficiency, specific exergetic consumption, CO2 emissions, CO2 specific emissions and exergetic renewability index) allows to identify the importance of each variable in process plant performance.