There have been major changes taking place in export horticulture over time that have been compounded by the recent economic crisis. Women and men have been affected differently by these changes. Women have played a major role as waged and unwaged labour but have also been significantly affected by these shifts. Although we know about the effects of the supermarket-led global production network (GPN) expansion on gender relations existing literature does not explore theoretically and empirically the gender implications of changing production networks. The thesis addresses this research gap by investigating the shifting role of women in the table (fresh) grape GPN from the town of Archanes in Crete, Greece to the European market and the implications for women’s labour agency across three periods. Thus, it addresses the research question: How has the relationship between women’s waged and unwaged work in the table grape GPN shifted across periods and what are the implications for gender and GPN analysis? It investigates changes across: 1) the period of the producer-led export market; 2) the period of the buyer-led GPN expansion; and 3) the period of crisis. A qualitative case study approach is used, utilising primarily interviews, focus groups and participant observation. This research builds on the GPN, feminist political economy and intra-household bargaining literatures to further develop a Gendered Global Production Networks (Gendered GPN) approach. An evolving Gendered GPN approach combines the GPN approach with a concept of gendered societal embeddedness which captures the interaction between commercial drivers and gendered societal relations. The thesis draws from the intra-household bargaining literature to incorporate a household level analysis of labour bargaining and fall-back positions to ‘unpack’ the concept of women’s labour agency. The thesis finds that while in the period of the producer-led export market women were unskilled labour, the expansion of supermarkets in period 2 offered skills and economic opportunities, enabling them to bargain in crisis even as unwaged labour in table grapes. Hence labour agency becomes more important in shaping women’s position in production networks than in the producer-led export market. Ultimately the GPN was still able to get high quality at low costs through female labour. Therefore commercial pressures influence gendered societal relations but also gendered societal relations influence commercial transitions. The findings show complex and non-linear forms of change characterised by tensions between commercial and gendered societal relations in a process of transition underpinned by shifts in women’s work and agency. I capture this with the concept of ‘gendered societal transitions’. This helps to further develop a Gendered GPN approach to advance knowledge of non-linear gendered transformations as GPNs evolve.

Na América Portuguesa, a partir da segunda metade do século XVIII, foi marcante o esforço da política metropolitana por maior centralização administrativa a fim de manter, expandir e desenvolver os domínios coloniais. As medidas adotadas a partir do reinado de d. José I e do ministério do marquês de Pombal não cessaram com a ascensão de d. Maria I, em 1777, nem com a regência do príncipe d. João VI, a partir de 1792. Pode-se dizer que com os secretários de Estado sucessores, Martinho de Mello e Castro e d. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, ocorreu, no plano colonial, certa aceleração do processo iniciado por Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello. Caso exemplar das diretrizes adotadas no período foi a restauração de São Paulo enquanto capitania-geral, em 1765, visando não só as necessidades de conquista territorial e defesa das fronteiras mas, igualmente, o estímulo e desenvolvimento econômico da capitania. Na tarefa de incrementar a agricultura exportadora, a Coroa portuguesa dependeu da elite colonial paulista, possuidora de riqueza anteriormente acumulada. O trabalho ora apresentado visa estudar a relação entre essa elite colonial e os diferentes governadores e capitãesgenerais da capitania de São Paulo, enquanto agentes das decisões e do poder régio, durante o período de formação e consolidação da produção agrícola paulista voltada para o mercado externo. / In the Portuguese America, as of the second half of the 18th century, it was remarkable the effort made by the metropolitan police for a greater administrative centralization with the purpose to maintain, expand and develop the colonial domains. The measures adopted since the reign of d. José I and the ministry of Marquês de Pombal did not cease with the ascension of d. Maria I, in 1777, nor with the reigning of prince d. João VI, as of 1792. It may be said that with the succeeding Secretaries of State, Martinho de Mello e Castro and d. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, there was, in the colonial plan, a certain acceleration of the process initiated by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello. An exceptional case of the directives adopted during such period was the restoration of São Paulo as a general captaincy, in 1765, aiming not only at the territorial conquest needs and frontier defense, but also the economical incentive and development of the captaincy. In order to develop the export agriculture, the Portuguese Crown depended on the colonial elite of São Paulo, possessor of a previously accumulated wealth. The purpose of this paper is to study the relation between the colonial elite and the different governors and general captains of the captaincies of São Paulo, as agents for the decisions and royal power, during the formation and consolidation of the agricultural production of São Paulo towards the foreign market.

Na América Portuguesa, a partir da segunda metade do século XVIII, foi marcante o esforço da política metropolitana por maior centralização administrativa a fim de manter, expandir e desenvolver os domínios coloniais. As medidas adotadas a partir do reinado de d. José I e do ministério do marquês de Pombal não cessaram com a ascensão de d. Maria I, em 1777, nem com a regência do príncipe d. João VI, a partir de 1792. Pode-se dizer que com os secretários de Estado sucessores, Martinho de Mello e Castro e d. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, ocorreu, no plano colonial, certa aceleração do processo iniciado por Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello. Caso exemplar das diretrizes adotadas no período foi a restauração de São Paulo enquanto capitania-geral, em 1765, visando não só as necessidades de conquista territorial e defesa das fronteiras mas, igualmente, o estímulo e desenvolvimento econômico da capitania. Na tarefa de incrementar a agricultura exportadora, a Coroa portuguesa dependeu da elite colonial paulista, possuidora de riqueza anteriormente acumulada. O trabalho ora apresentado visa estudar a relação entre essa elite colonial e os diferentes governadores e capitãesgenerais da capitania de São Paulo, enquanto agentes das decisões e do poder régio, durante o período de formação e consolidação da produção agrícola paulista voltada para o mercado externo. / In the Portuguese America, as of the second half of the 18th century, it was remarkable the effort made by the metropolitan police for a greater administrative centralization with the purpose to maintain, expand and develop the colonial domains. The measures adopted since the reign of d. José I and the ministry of Marquês de Pombal did not cease with the ascension of d. Maria I, in 1777, nor with the reigning of prince d. João VI, as of 1792. It may be said that with the succeeding Secretaries of State, Martinho de Mello e Castro and d. Rodrigo de Souza Coutinho, there was, in the colonial plan, a certain acceleration of the process initiated by Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello. An exceptional case of the directives adopted during such period was the restoration of São Paulo as a general captaincy, in 1765, aiming not only at the territorial conquest needs and frontier defense, but also the economical incentive and development of the captaincy. In order to develop the export agriculture, the Portuguese Crown depended on the colonial elite of São Paulo, possessor of a previously accumulated wealth. The purpose of this paper is to study the relation between the colonial elite and the different governors and general captains of the captaincies of São Paulo, as agents for the decisions and royal power, during the formation and consolidation of the agricultural production of São Paulo towards the foreign market.

Text in Afrikaans / Summaries in Afrikaans and English / Miljoene mense ervaar voedselonsekerheid en een uit elke 50 hanger mense is woonagtig in Suid­ Afrika. Daar is genoeg voedsel op ons planeet om elke mens van 'n voldoende voorraad voedsel te verseker; dit waarborg egter nie voedselsekuriteit aan almal nie. Dit is die voedselparadoks: ondanks globale surplusproduksie van voedsel, ly miljoene mense wereldwyd aan wanvoeding en honger, maar veral in die ontwikkelende lande. Suid-Afrika is geen uitsondering nie en ten spyte van selfvoorsiening in voedsel, balanseer die voedselgelykstelling nie. Daar bestaan 'n ekstreme gaping tussen die produksie en verbruik van voedsel. Gevolglik is die probleem wat nagevors is in hierdie studie die gebrek aan voedselsekuriteit binne 'n wereldkonteks met voedselsurplusse en hoe dit reflekteer in Suid-Afrika. Teen hierdie agtergrond is daar 'n studie gedoen van die oorsake van voedselonsekerheid en die teoriee en verduidelikings van hongersnood. Die fokus van hierdie navorsingstudie is drieledig van aard. Eerstens fokus dit op 'n konseptuele ondersoek na hanger, armoede, voedselsekuriteit en hongersnood in Afrika. Tweedens is ondersoek ingestel na die oorsake vir die gebrek aan voedselsekuriteit in Afrika. Derdens is daar gefokus op Suid-Afrika en is 'n ondersoek gedoen na die voorkoms van hanger, wanvoeding, armoede en die nasionale konteks van voedselsekuriteit met die doel om vraagstukke daaromheen te identifiseer. Daar is bevind dat voedselsekuriteit bepaal word deur die beskikbaarheid van voedsel (aanbod) en die vermoe van mense om dit te bekom (aanvraag). Dit blyk dat die ontwikkelingsproses, regeringsbeleid, ekologiese omgewing en tegnologie, wetenskap en navorsing 'n direkte invloed het op die voedselsekuriteit van mense, en dat Suid-Afrika nie verskil van ander Afrikalande in hierdie verband nie. Hoewel Suid-Afrika voedselselfvoorsiening bereik het, ly miljoene mense honger weens armoede en die gebrek aan aansprake wat bydra tot 'n gebrek aan voedselsekuriteit. Die studie toon dat die Suid-Afrikaanse regering verskeie beleidsmaatreels in plek het ter bevordering van voedselsekuriteit, maar dat dit nie in die praktyk verwesenlik word nie. / Millions of people in the world experience food insecurity and one out ofevery 50 hungry people lives in South Africa. There is enough food on our planet to assure every person of an adequate supply of food; however, this does not guarantee food security for all. This is the food paradox: despite a global surplus production of food, millions of people experience malnutrition and hunger all over the world, but especially in the developing countries. South Africa is no exception and despite self-sufficiency in food, the food equation is not balanced. An extreme gap exists between the production and consumption of food. Consequently, the problem researched in this study is the lack of food security in a world context with surplus food and how this is reflected in South Africa. Against this background a study was undertaken of the causes of food insecurity and the theories and explanations of famine. The focus of this research study is threefold. Firstly it focuses on a conceptual enquiry intohunger, poverty, food security and famine in Africa. Secondly there is an enquiry into the causes of the lack of food security in Africa. Thirdly it focuses on South Africa and an enquiry is done into the incidence of hunger, malnutrition and poverty, and into the national context of food security with the aim of identifying relevant problems in food security. It was found that food security is determined by the availability of food (supply) and the capability of people to obtain it (demand). It appears that the development process, government policy, ecological environment and technology, science and research directly affect the food security of people, and that South Africa does not differ from other African countries in this regard. Although South Africa has achieved food self-sufficiency, millions of people experience hunger because of poverty and the lack of entitlements. The study shows that the South African government has various policy measures for the promotion of food security in place, but that food security does not materialise in practice. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Ontwikkelingsadministrasie)

Text in Afrikaans / Summaries in Afrikaans and English / Miljoene mense ervaar voedselonsekerheid en een uit elke 50 hanger mense is woonagtig in Suid­ Afrika. Daar is genoeg voedsel op ons planeet om elke mens van 'n voldoende voorraad voedsel te verseker; dit waarborg egter nie voedselsekuriteit aan almal nie. Dit is die voedselparadoks: ondanks globale surplusproduksie van voedsel, ly miljoene mense wereldwyd aan wanvoeding en honger, maar veral in die ontwikkelende lande. Suid-Afrika is geen uitsondering nie en ten spyte van selfvoorsiening in voedsel, balanseer die voedselgelykstelling nie. Daar bestaan 'n ekstreme gaping tussen die produksie en verbruik van voedsel. Gevolglik is die probleem wat nagevors is in hierdie studie die gebrek aan voedselsekuriteit binne 'n wereldkonteks met voedselsurplusse en hoe dit reflekteer in Suid-Afrika. Teen hierdie agtergrond is daar 'n studie gedoen van die oorsake van voedselonsekerheid en die teoriee en verduidelikings van hongersnood. Die fokus van hierdie navorsingstudie is drieledig van aard. Eerstens fokus dit op 'n konseptuele ondersoek na hanger, armoede, voedselsekuriteit en hongersnood in Afrika. Tweedens is ondersoek ingestel na die oorsake vir die gebrek aan voedselsekuriteit in Afrika. Derdens is daar gefokus op Suid-Afrika en is 'n ondersoek gedoen na die voorkoms van hanger, wanvoeding, armoede en die nasionale konteks van voedselsekuriteit met die doel om vraagstukke daaromheen te identifiseer. Daar is bevind dat voedselsekuriteit bepaal word deur die beskikbaarheid van voedsel (aanbod) en die vermoe van mense om dit te bekom (aanvraag). Dit blyk dat die ontwikkelingsproses, regeringsbeleid, ekologiese omgewing en tegnologie, wetenskap en navorsing 'n direkte invloed het op die voedselsekuriteit van mense, en dat Suid-Afrika nie verskil van ander Afrikalande in hierdie verband nie. Hoewel Suid-Afrika voedselselfvoorsiening bereik het, ly miljoene mense honger weens armoede en die gebrek aan aansprake wat bydra tot 'n gebrek aan voedselsekuriteit. Die studie toon dat die Suid-Afrikaanse regering verskeie beleidsmaatreels in plek het ter bevordering van voedselsekuriteit, maar dat dit nie in die praktyk verwesenlik word nie. / Millions of people in the world experience food insecurity and one out ofevery 50 hungry people lives in South Africa. There is enough food on our planet to assure every person of an adequate supply of food; however, this does not guarantee food security for all. This is the food paradox: despite a global surplus production of food, millions of people experience malnutrition and hunger all over the world, but especially in the developing countries. South Africa is no exception and despite self-sufficiency in food, the food equation is not balanced. An extreme gap exists between the production and consumption of food. Consequently, the problem researched in this study is the lack of food security in a world context with surplus food and how this is reflected in South Africa. Against this background a study was undertaken of the causes of food insecurity and the theories and explanations of famine. The focus of this research study is threefold. Firstly it focuses on a conceptual enquiry intohunger, poverty, food security and famine in Africa. Secondly there is an enquiry into the causes of the lack of food security in Africa. Thirdly it focuses on South Africa and an enquiry is done into the incidence of hunger, malnutrition and poverty, and into the national context of food security with the aim of identifying relevant problems in food security. It was found that food security is determined by the availability of food (supply) and the capability of people to obtain it (demand). It appears that the development process, government policy, ecological environment and technology, science and research directly affect the food security of people, and that South Africa does not differ from other African countries in this regard. Although South Africa has achieved food self-sufficiency, millions of people experience hunger because of poverty and the lack of entitlements. The study shows that the South African government has various policy measures for the promotion of food security in place, but that food security does not materialise in practice. / Development Studies / D.Litt. et Phil. (Ontwikkelingsadministrasie)