The expressive writing (EW) paradigm developed by Pennebaker (1985) has been found to provide health benefits in populations with medical and psychological conditions. Several theories have been proposed to explain the effectiveness of EW such as: the inhibition theory, increased social connections theory, the cognitive adaptation theory, and the exposure/emotional processing theory. Some studies have suggested that the effects of EW on health outcomes are mediated by varying degrees of depth processing (DP). The present study examines differences in emotional expression (EE) and DP in self-identified gay (GM) and straight men (SM), and assesses changes in levels of depression and PTSD symptoms from pre- to post-intervention. It was hypothesized that GM would display higher levels of EE, and consequently DP, in their written essays. This hypothesis was based on the notion that GM are behaviorally and emotionally more similar to women, who typically display higher levels of EE. Lower levels of depression and PTSD symptoms at follow-ups sessions were expected because theories to explain the effectiveness of EW address several common life experiences of GM. Results showed that GM expressed significantly more negative emotion words and were significantly more involved in the writing process than SM. However, when education was controlled for, the findings were no longer significant. The two groups did not differ from each other in their slope of change in levels of depression and PTSD symptoms from pre- to post-intervention, although the SM group displayed a significant within-group reduction in PTSD symptoms. It appears that EW may actually be more beneficial for HIV-positive SM than GM in alleviating PTSD symptoms. Interpretations and implications for future research are also discussed.

This study presents a framework for categorization of the imagery used in solo piano practice. The framework sorts imagery into two large category: pianistic and non-pianistic and further subdivides into three groups: auditory, kinesthetic, and visual. Given such a range of function for imagery, such as a “view” of the score, instrument, or the space in which performance takes place, a number of terms have emerged to describe imagery within musical practice, terms such as mental rehearsal, mental practice, aural or internal representations, inner hearing, visualization, and finger practice. My goal for this study is not only to investigate the potential of imagery and to devise a framework in which such terms could be defined with more consistency across the whole scope of piano performance studies; but also to apply such findings by suggesting ways in which the framework could be used in practice. With an understanding of imagery and the benefits it may bring, this study suggests paths for further exploration, paths that can impact how music educators might assist music enhance expression, music appreciation and learning, as well as technique in performance practice.

Researchers have categorized emotion regulation strategies generally as adaptive or maladaptive, depending on impacts of the strategy on psychophysiological, cognitive, and emotional outcomes. A strategy that is widely considered to be maladaptive is expressive suppression, which refers to inhibiting one’s facial expression, to appear neutral. Another emotion regulation strategy that is commonly used but infrequently studied is expressive dissonance, which refers to showing the opposite of how one feels. There is limited research on expressive dissonance, but the longstanding facial feedback hypothesis suggests that facial expressions can further enhance or lower one’s mood; if this is the case, then smiling, even when feeling anxious, may be more adaptive than showing no emotion at all. The objective of my thesis was to examine whether using expressive dissonance was more adaptive than expressive suppression, for regulating negative emotions. To determine adaptiveness, I examined the effect of these two strategies on both intrapersonal factors (i.e., impacts of the strategy on one’s own psychophysiology, memory accuracy, and affect) and interpersonal factors (i.e., impacts of the strategy on social qualities like friendliness and likeability). In the first study, I tested the intrapersonal impacts of expressive suppression and expressive dissonance, compared to a control condition, while women participants (n = 144) viewed negatively arousing images. In the second study, I expanded on the first study by examining intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities (e.g., friendliness, likeability, warmth), in an ecologically valid context (i.e., a conversation with an unacquainted opposite gender confederate). Across both studies, I found no effect of strategy on intrapersonal factors; however, there were effects on interpersonal factors in Study 2. Participants engaging in expressive dissonance were rated more positively, and people in the expressive suppression condition were rated more negatively on interpersonal qualities, relative to the control condition. Taken together, our findings suggest that neither strategy impacted the participant intrapersonally, but both strategies influenced the observer’s impression of the participant. Based on the findings, I encourage a shift from conceptualizing strategies as overall maladaptive or adaptive, to considering specific strategies as helpful or unhelpful based on the regulation’s goal.

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The study attempted to assess whether test anxiety could be successfully managed using an expressive writing or meditation anxiety reduction technique, and whether these results would be maintained one week following the manipulation. Three administrations of the Test Anxiety Inventory were collected one week before, directly after, and one week following the assignment of participants to one of three study test conditions: meditation, expressive writing, and a control (narrative account of the previous day’s events). The students were given a 24-question GRE practice exam to simulate a high-stakes test environment. Repeated measures ANOVA and ANCOVA were performed to test the effectiveness of the intervention. Relationships between GPA, procrastination, test-preparedness, and test anxiety were examined, as were the correlations among depression, worry, and test anxiety. The results of the main and exploratory analyses did not indicate any significant differences across the three conditions. Suggestions for future research include incorporating a more robust version of the treatment, recruiting more participants reporting high anxiety at baseline, and utilizing test conditions in which the participants are more invested. / text

Using counselling sessions conducted by ten "master therapists" (e.g., Rogers, Ellis, Perls) from four different schools of psychotherapy, the present study investigated relationships between four variables: Client experiencing, emotional arousal/expression, productive client in-session behaviours, and therapist interventions. / High levels of client experiencing occurred in significantly different proportions across schools in the sample, and had significantly different interactions with clients' productive in-session behaviours across the four schools studied. Likewise, admixtures of client experiencing and strong emotional arousal occurred to significantly different proportions across schools, and these admixtures also had significantly different interactions with clients' productive in-session behaviours across the four schools. These findings demonstrate that clients' productive in-session behaviours are not uniformly facilitated by high levels of experiencing across all schools. / Next, across schools, therapist interventions of low structure were found to be significantly more associated with subsequent high levels of client experiencing than were interventions of moderate or high structure. However, loglinear analysis indicated that this association varied across schools, suggesting that the same therapist interventions had different in-session outcomes in different schools. The same three interventions were most likely to be followed by high experiencing in all schools: Reflection, interpretation, and provision of information. The common factors implications of this finding are discussed. / Finally, in order to take in-session context into account, a second study examined in-session episodes that represented different experiencing/emotional arousal conditions. Two clinically experienced judges rated 23 aspects of the in-session process (i.e., therapist tasks, client tasks, client focus, and quality of episodes) of 24 such different episodes. Only one aspect emerged as significant: When working with clients at high levels of Experiencing, but without strong emotional arousal levels, therapists were significantly more likely to identify clients' underlying affect than in the other two Experiencing/emotional arousal episode types. No other significant differences were found in the therapist or clients' tasks, client focus, or quality of the different episodes. Several methodological directives are offered for future researchers employing a design similar to that of this second study.

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The present research explores a promising therapy – Supportive Expressive Therapy (SET; Luborsky, 1984) – for adolescents with mood and/or anxiety disorders. It has been proposed that therapist expressive techniques (e.g., challenges and interpretations) and client interpersonal mastery (i.e., self-understanding and self-control in relationships) are two elements central to the success of SET (Luborsky, 1984; Grenyer & Luborsky, 1996). The current thesis employs a microprocess approach to examine expressive techniques and interpersonal mastery as potential mechanisms of change in SET. The study first provides preliminary evidence that SET is effective in helping adolescents suffering from internalizing disorders. Clients (N = 10) reported significantly fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety post-therapy. The body of the study then focuses on two research questions pertaining to the microprocesses occurring during SET. First, employing graphical and statistical analyses, the study investigates the notion that SET helps clients develop greater interpersonal mastery. Ten clients’ levels of interpersonal mastery were assessed at four points throughout therapy to determine whether clients demonstrated higher levels of interpersonal mastery over time. Secondly, this dissertation explores the impact of therapist expressive statements on clients' narratives, using a lag sequential analysis. Clients' statements were examined to determine whether higher levels of interpersonal mastery were exhibited following higher-level expressive techniques versus other therapist statements (i.e., supportive statements). Statistical analyses pertaining to the first research question did not reveal significant changes in interpersonal mastery over the course of therapy. However, graphical analyses suggested specific patterns of gains in interpersonal mastery during SET. With respect to the second research question, results demonstrated therapists employed significantly more higher-level expressive techniques in the later stages of SET, in accordance with the guidelines provided in SET manuals. Lag sequential analyses did not, however, provide substantial evidence of gains in interpersonal mastery following higher-level therapist techniques. Despite a lack of evidence supporting a general link between higher-level techniques and increased client mastery, exploratory analyses suggested change-focused expressive statements were linked to fewer client statements reflecting low interpersonal mastery. Future research should examine (1) change-focused statements as potentially important variables fostering improvement, and (2) moderators of client responses to higher-level techniques.

The present research explores a promising therapy – Supportive Expressive Therapy (SET; Luborsky, 1984) – for adolescents with mood and/or anxiety disorders. It has been proposed that therapist expressive techniques (e.g., challenges and interpretations) and client interpersonal mastery (i.e., self-understanding and self-control in relationships) are two elements central to the success of SET (Luborsky, 1984; Grenyer & Luborsky, 1996). The current thesis employs a microprocess approach to examine expressive techniques and interpersonal mastery as potential mechanisms of change in SET. The study first provides preliminary evidence that SET is effective in helping adolescents suffering from internalizing disorders. Clients (N = 10) reported significantly fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety post-therapy. The body of the study then focuses on two research questions pertaining to the microprocesses occurring during SET. First, employing graphical and statistical analyses, the study investigates the notion that SET helps clients develop greater interpersonal mastery. Ten clients’ levels of interpersonal mastery were assessed at four points throughout therapy to determine whether clients demonstrated higher levels of interpersonal mastery over time. Secondly, this dissertation explores the impact of therapist expressive statements on clients' narratives, using a lag sequential analysis. Clients' statements were examined to determine whether higher levels of interpersonal mastery were exhibited following higher-level expressive techniques versus other therapist statements (i.e., supportive statements). Statistical analyses pertaining to the first research question did not reveal significant changes in interpersonal mastery over the course of therapy. However, graphical analyses suggested specific patterns of gains in interpersonal mastery during SET. With respect to the second research question, results demonstrated therapists employed significantly more higher-level expressive techniques in the later stages of SET, in accordance with the guidelines provided in SET manuals. Lag sequential analyses did not, however, provide substantial evidence of gains in interpersonal mastery following higher-level therapist techniques. Despite a lack of evidence supporting a general link between higher-level techniques and increased client mastery, exploratory analyses suggested change-focused expressive statements were linked to fewer client statements reflecting low interpersonal mastery. Future research should examine (1) change-focused statements as potentially important variables fostering improvement, and (2) moderators of client responses to higher-level techniques.

An impressive body of research indicates expressive writing (Pennebaker & Beall, 1986) produces physiological and psychological benefits. One study found that expressive writing decreases depressive symptoms among formerly depressed college students (Gortner, Rude, & Pennebaker, 2006). Gortner et al. (2006) argue that expressive writing may produce changes by reducing negative evaluations of emotional experiences and self-judgment, often associated with depression, through instructions encouraging participants to delve into their “deepest thoughts and feelings.” In other words, the standard writing instructions appear to send an implicit message that individuals be accepting and non-judgmental towards emotions and cognitions. The mindfulness literature suggests that making this message explicit may improve the preventative power of expressive writing in depression-vulnerable populations (Baer, 2003; Kingston, Dooley, Bates, Lawlor, & Malone, 2007; Teasdale et al., 2000; Toneatto & Nguyen, 2007). Therefore, the specific goal of the present study was to examine the effects of a mindfulness-enhanced expressive writing intervention among depression-prone individuals. Depression-vulnerable participants (e.g., dysphoric or formerly depressed) were randomly assigned to one of three groups. Although writing instructions varied for each group, all participants wrote for 20 minutes across a three-day period. The mindfulness condition received writing instructions that encouraged participants to be non-judgmental, accepting, and self-compassionate as they wrote about distressing events. Participants in the traditional writing condition received standard writing instructions, which consisted of writing about their deepest thoughts and feelings related to an emotional incident. Finally, students in the control condition were instructed to write about what they did the previous day. Results showed marginally significant decreases in depressive symptoms among participants in the mindfulness group compared to the control condition. In addition, results indicated that low suppressive depression-vulnerable individuals in the mindfulness condition marginally improved their cognitive processing biases compared to their counterparts in the traditional and control groups. Results failed to support hypotheses that predicted improvements on self-compassion, rumination, and mindfulness skills. Further, self-compassion was not found to mediate the effects of treatment on depressive symptoms and rumination. Obviously more research needs to be conducted, however preliminary results suggest that brief mindfulness interventions may be beneficial for a depression-vulnerable population. / text