The regulation of cardiac-specific genes such as GATA-4 and its co-factor FOG-2 is paramount for normal heart development and function. Indeed, those mechanisms that regulate GATA-4 and FOG-2 function, such as nuclear transport and the post-translational modification of SUMOylation, are of critical importance for cardiogenesis. Therefore the aims of this study were to: i) elucidate the nuclear transport mechanisms of GATA-4; ii) determine the function of SUMOylation on the biological activity of both GATA-4 and FOG-2; and iii) examine how these mechanisms impact on the role of GATA-4 and FOG-2 in cardiac hypertrophy. Firstly, we characterised a non-classical nuclear localisation signal that mediates active import of GATA-4 in both HeLa cells and cardiac myocytes. Fine mapping studies revealed four crucial residues within this region that interacted with importin ?? to mediate GATA-4 import via the non-classical import pathway. In addition, a cardiac myocyte-specific CRM1-dependent nuclear export signal, which consists of three essential leucine residues, was identified. We also investigated the residues of GATA-4 that are responsible for its DNAbinding activity and therefore transcriptional control of cardiac-specific genes. Secondly, we demonstrated that SUMOylation of both GATA-4 and FOG-2 is exclusively carried out by SUMO-2/3. Moreover, SUMOylation is involved in the nuclear localisation of both GATA-4 and FOG-2 in cardiac myocytes as well as the transcriptional regulation of cardiac-specific genes, such as cardiac troponin I. Finally, and perhaps most biologically significant, we showed that nuclear transport as well as SUMOylation of GATA-4 is imperative for the ability of GATA-4 to induce cardiac hypertrophy. Moreover, it was determined that FOG-2 SUMOylation is involved in the ability of FOG-2 to protect against cardiac hypertrophy. In conclusion, the current study provides detailed information on the nuclear transport pathways of GATA-4 as well as the SUMOylation of both GATA-4 and FOG-2 and the role these two mechanisms play in gene transcription and cardiac hypertrophy.

The regulation of cardiac-specific genes such as GATA-4 and its co-factor FOG-2 is paramount for normal heart development and function. Indeed, those mechanisms that regulate GATA-4 and FOG-2 function, such as nuclear transport and the post-translational modification of SUMOylation, are of critical importance for cardiogenesis. Therefore the aims of this study were to: i) elucidate the nuclear transport mechanisms of GATA-4; ii) determine the function of SUMOylation on the biological activity of both GATA-4 and FOG-2; and iii) examine how these mechanisms impact on the role of GATA-4 and FOG-2 in cardiac hypertrophy. Firstly, we characterised a non-classical nuclear localisation signal that mediates active import of GATA-4 in both HeLa cells and cardiac myocytes. Fine mapping studies revealed four crucial residues within this region that interacted with importin ?? to mediate GATA-4 import via the non-classical import pathway. In addition, a cardiac myocyte-specific CRM1-dependent nuclear export signal, which consists of three essential leucine residues, was identified. We also investigated the residues of GATA-4 that are responsible for its DNAbinding activity and therefore transcriptional control of cardiac-specific genes. Secondly, we demonstrated that SUMOylation of both GATA-4 and FOG-2 is exclusively carried out by SUMO-2/3. Moreover, SUMOylation is involved in the nuclear localisation of both GATA-4 and FOG-2 in cardiac myocytes as well as the transcriptional regulation of cardiac-specific genes, such as cardiac troponin I. Finally, and perhaps most biologically significant, we showed that nuclear transport as well as SUMOylation of GATA-4 is imperative for the ability of GATA-4 to induce cardiac hypertrophy. Moreover, it was determined that FOG-2 SUMOylation is involved in the ability of FOG-2 to protect against cardiac hypertrophy. In conclusion, the current study provides detailed information on the nuclear transport pathways of GATA-4 as well as the SUMOylation of both GATA-4 and FOG-2 and the role these two mechanisms play in gene transcription and cardiac hypertrophy.