This thesis analyzes postmemory, feminism, and women's writing seen in three contemporary novels written by women about women who lived and defied traditional gender roles during the Spanish Civil War and the Francisco Franco dictatorship. I discuss how these female characters and real-life women were marginalized for defying women's roles, while facing extreme injustices. They refused to adhere to the norms that the patriarchal discourse imposed on them during the era and never gave up in the fight to express their voice. I discuss the novels, La voz dormida by Dulce Chacón, Donde nadie te encuentre by Alicia Giménez Bartlett, and Su cuerpo era su gozo by Beatriz Gimeno. Each novel is written in the 21st century by female writers who did not experience the same tragedies as the characters in the novels. However, the writers give a voice to these women through the use of postmemory. The novelists rediscover the women's experiences through their writing and give them the voice that the women were denied throughout their lives. The women I discuss are all marginalized because they are women and do not conform to the established gender roles that their society has imposed. The women in La voz dormida were marginalized because they dared to fight as soldiers alongside men against Franco's forces. La Pastora in Donde nadie te encuentre was marginalized because she was born an intersexual who is also a member of the Maquis, a group also opposing Franco's forces. Finally, I speak about two lesbians who are marginalized and punished due to their sexuality and independent lifestyle. I use feminist, lesbian, and queer theory by citing philosophers such as Hélène Cixous, Adrienne Rich, Judith Butler, Monique Wittig, and Raquel Platero Méndez among others. I also include theory from Michel Foucault and scholars who write about postmemory such as Sarah Leggott and Marianne Hirsch. Through these concepts of postmemory, feminism, and women's writing, these novels finally give voice to several women who defied the roles imposed on them during the Spanish Civil War and Franco's dictatorship.

The dominant language in the United States is English but there are different minority languages spoken such as Spanish. Today, Spanish can be found in every state and territory of the United States. In Texas, the city of San Antonio is in intense contact with Spanish, partly because of the long history between Texas and Mexico and the constant influx of Hispanic immigrants. This thesis studies the attitude toward Spanish in San Antonio, investigating the uses of Spanish and English and the social factors (age, generation, education, gender, etc.) that affect the use of Spanish. Through a questionnaire designed to determine attitude and given to 150 participants, the attitude in San Antonio is in conflict due to the intense contact between the two languages and the social pressure from the dominant language on the minority community. En los Estados Unidos la lengua más dominante es el inglés pero se encuentran diferentes idiomas minioritarios como el castellano. Hoy en día se encuentran hablantes de castellano en todos los estados y territorios de la Unión Americana. En Texas, la ciudad de San Antonio está en contacto intenso con el castellano debido a la larga historia del estado con México y la constante inmigración de hispanos. Esta tesis investiga la actitud hacia el castellano en San Antonio, estudiando los usos del castellano y el inglés y los factores sociales (la edad, la generación, la educación, el género, etc.) que afectan el uso del castellano. A través de un cuestionario diseñado para averiguar la actitud y dado a 150 participantes, la actitud en San Antonio está conflictiva debido al contacto intenso entre los dos idiomas y la presión de la sociedad dominante a la comunidad lingüísticamente minoritaria.

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Indonesia and China in Southeast Asia and East Asian, Play an important role. Indonesia in Southeast Asian is the territory's largest and largest Chinese population of people, is located between the hub of the Pacific, Indian Ocean, and occupies an important position in the global strategy, abundant natural resources in Indonesia is also a major advantage; In China, occupying an area of East Asia, half the population after the reforms of China, the world's largest country is fighting for market. On the relationship between the two countries in East Asia can be said to have the hares and some partnerships. Indonesia and China both have a common background in the pre-independence history, so in 1950, Indonesia was the first Southeast Asian country to establish diplomatic relations with China, countries. With the impact of the international situation, Indonesia and China, there were two major changes. A result of communism, the Cold War with the "930 Incident" broke out, resulting in changes in the two countries for the first time. Since 1978, China's reform and opening-up policy to promote economic growth, the two sides began a close relationship, this is the second change. The late 1990s, China's rise on the facts and the ambition to achieve regional dominance, causing concern about the East Asian countries, China can not ignore the potential opportunities and the impact it will change Indonesia's China policy a third change is worth exploring. This article, through the above-mentioned two change, globalization and Indonesia to identify factors such as internal stability, which may again affect the future relations between India and the trends and changes.

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Hispanics are not only the largest language minority in the United States, but also in U.S. prisons. An increasing number of primarily Spanish-speaking defendants face the legal and linguistic challenges of a U.S. courtroom. Constitutional and statutory protections have been put in place to guarantee that non-native English defendants have access to a court interpreter during their trial. Yet, under these protections it is left to the presiding judge to determine whether a court interpreter is truly needed. Thus, the judge has to determine if the comprehension of the non-native English defendant is sufficiently inhibited as to require language assistance during trial. What methods do judges use in order to determine the English proficiency of a primarily Spanish-speaking defendant? How good does the English of a non-native English defendant have to be in order to stand trial without an interpreter? Are the language needs of Hispanics truly an issue in U.S. courts? Would guidelines on how to determine English language proficiency facilitate the judges work? In order to answer these questions, one hundred surveys were sent to federal and state criminal court judges in four states (CA, FL, NY, TX). The analysis of the responses returned by the judges showed that language issues of Hispanics are an important issue in U.S. courts. In addition, the answers provided by the judges revealed that non-native English defendants must be able to understand broadly, or everything that is said at trial, and that they must be able to answer questions in whole sentences in order to be able to stand trial without an interpreter. With regard to methods that judges use in order to determine the English proficiency of a non-native English defendant, the data showed that most judges choose to appoint an interpreter, if one is requested by the defendant. Also, many judges ask the defendant directly whether he/she needs an interpreter. As most judges responded that the request by the defendant is sufficient for him/her to receive an interpreter, they do not agree that a set of guidelines to determine the English proficiency of the defendant would facilitate their work.

The subject of Maya music is by no means a new field of study for Hispanic cultural scholars or Mesoamerican anthropologists. For example, the archeological reports of Dr. Norman Hammond and Dr. Paul Healy have greatly increased the information in this area of study. The instrumentation utilized by ancient Maya musicians and the raw materials that were the essence of their production have been the major themes in these previous publications. However, these perspectives exclude the sound of music and aspects of ancient Maya society. This thesis has been planned to examine ancient Maya music according to archaeology, society and the sound of music. The first chapter of this study will deal with the known facts surrounding Maya musical instrumentation based on the more popular studies published by Hammond, Healy and other prestigious scholars. The purpose of the first chapter will be to introduce the main forms of instrumentation: idiophones, membranophones and areophones. Then, the second chapter will involve the most popular known exhibition of Maya musical performance, the Bonampak frescoes of Chiapas, Mexico. The analysis of these frescoes will include the sound of the instruments of this performance to draw conclusions about musicians and hierarchy. Next, the third chapter will pertain to ancient flutes and ocarinas, the most common instruments surviving today. I will use the sound and physical characteristics to identify which musical instruments were status symbols. My fourth chapter will deal with the recreation of Maya music that occurs in media productions such as Patricia Amlin's "Popol Vuh: The Creation Myth of the Maya". Master flute makers such as Robin Hodgkinson and Guillermo Martinez will be discussed along with their work to give insights public perception of ancient Maya music. The final chapter will be a summary that will reiterate issues surrounding the instruments, sounds and the musical hierarchy of the Maya. This last chapter will demonstrate how the sound of ancient Maya instruments has been used to further the classification and information known about this musical culture.

Vowels occurring adjacently across word boundaries form what is known as hiatus. In orthographic pronunciation, hiatus is defined by the brief pause between the two vowels as in yo estoy and la economía, where - represents a pause. However, since speakers of Spanish (or any other natural language) do not always pronounce orthographically when engaging in colloquial speech, the hiatus undergoes a variety of changes in order to accommodate certain phonological constraints. These changes are referred to as hiatus resolution and include vowel weakening, glide formation and vowel elision. As reported by the numerous studies of Spanish dialectology throughout the world, each dialect displays specific preferences for specific types of hiatus resolution. However, many of these investigations do not analyze the issue from a sociolinguistic viewpoint. The aim of this study is to discover what types of hiatus resolution are present in Mexico City Spanish and what effect the variables of age and gender have on their usage. In order to engage in this process, the language of 18 participants from Mexico City was recorded and analyzed for hiatus resolution. The results were then quantified and organized into gender and age group.

New Orleans, Louisiana, is a city with a rich Hispanic history which is often overlooked. Likewise, the role the Catholic Church has played in assisting the immigrant groups that have settled in New Orleans in the building of their communities has also often been ignored. The first part of this work will seek to trace the different Hispanic groups that have come to the city, their often unacknowledged legacies, and examine what role the Catholic Church played in their communities and history. During Spanish rule of colonial Louisiana from 1762 to 1803, Spanish colonists and recruits from the Canary Islands - or the Isleños - were the first Hispanic settlers in New Orleans. Both were exclusively Catholic. Nearly two centuries later, Cubans came to the city fleeing Castro's regime and Hondurans came looking for more opportunities as economic and social conditions in their homeland declined. This work will examine how the Catholic Church responded to the needs of the new arrivals. Masses were offered in the Spanish language in the city's Honduran neighborhood. The Church operated a center dedicated to helping Cubans transition in the city. It also offered and continues to offer English and citizenship classes, among other services, to Hispanics in the city. In Post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans, a new group of Hispanic immigrants has arrived in the metropolitan area. This group, however, is not as homogeneous as its predecessors; they are from different countries, speak different dialects of Spanish, and are more diverse in their religious affiliations. This means that the Catholic Church, although it does offer services for the new Hispanic immigrants, will not necessarily be the building block around which the new Hispanic community in New Orleans will be constructed. The second part of this work focuses on who these new Hispanic immigrants are and how they and Hispanics living in the city prior to Hurricane Katrina will "imagine" the new Hispanic community without shared national identities, languages and the central, and also without, necessarily, the constant element in the communities created by previous Hispanic immigrants and other immigrant groups in the city - the Catholic Church.

The last Argentine dictatorship, officially known as the Process of National Reorganization (PNR), lasted nearly eight years (1976-1983) but the change that it produced in the subjectivity of the citizenry did not disappear when the military dictatorship left power. The fear of being denounced by friends, neighbors, or even family members resulted in apathy and ultimately, in "ignorance" of the events and in the taboo of speaking of them in private settings. The novelists and filmmakers that have begun to name the unnamable of that horror have done more for the comprehension and "healing" of that citizenry than all of the political-social programs. The fictional memories and imagination of these novelists and filmmakers have conquered the taboo to a certain point. Although speaking directly of the events is not done, one can discuss the novels and films that recount the problematic issue of the terror and its consequences. Through this new way of explaining the Period of the PNR, the Argentine citizenry has begun to recover its memory. In 2001, when the Argentine economy was plunged into large scale chaos and the possibility of regressing to the days of State terrorism existed, the Argentine citizenry reached a mature and rapid resolution within the bounds of peaceful mobilization. By conquering that crisis without involving the armed forces and without the violence of its history, Argentina shows hope for the future. Although the PNR dramatically affected Argentine subjectivity, the manner in which the country has resolved its most recent crises demonstrates that the next thirty years will be much more productive, more worthy, more filled with future prospects than the thirty years since the PNR began.