Facial recognition methodologies, widely used today in everything from automatic passport controls at airports to unlocking devices on mobile phones, has developed greatly in recent years. The methodologies vary from feature based landmark comparisons in 2D and 3D, utilising Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to surface-based Iterative Closest Point Algorithm (ICP) analysis and a wide variety of techniques in between. The aim of all facial recognition software (FCS) is to find or match a target face with a reference face of a known individual from an existing database. FCS, however, faces many challenges including temporal variations due to development/ageing and variations in facial expression. To determine any quantifiable heritability of facial morphology using this resource, one has to look for faces with enough demonstrable similarities to predict a possible genetic link, instead of the ordinary matching of the same individual’s face in different instances. With the exception of identical twins, this means the introduction of many more variables into the equation of how to relate faces to each other. Variation due to both developmental and degenerative aging becomes a much greater issue than in previous matching situations, especially when comparing parents with children. Additionally, sexual dimorphism is encountered with cross gender relationships, for example, between mothers and sons. Non-inherited variables are also encountered such as BMI, facial disfigurement and the effects of dental work and tooth loss. For this study a Trimmed Iterative Closest Point Algorithm (TrICP) was applied to three-dimensional surfaces scans, created using a white light scanner and Flexscan 3D, of the faces of 41 families consisting of 139 individuals. The TrICP algorithm produced 7176 Mesh-to-mesh Values (MMV) for each of seven sections of the face (Whole face, Eyes, Nose, Mouth, Eyes-Nose, Eyes-Nose-Mouth, and Eyes-Nose- Mouth-Chin). Receiver Operated Characteristic (ROC) analysis was then conducted for each of the seven sections of the face within 11 predetermined categories of relationship, in order to assess the utility of the method for predicting familial relationships (sensitivity/specificity). Additionally, the MMVs of three single features, (eyes, nose and mouth) were combined to form four combination areas which were analysed within the same 11 relationship categories. Overall the relationship between sisters showed the most similarity across all areas of the face with the clear exception of the mouth. Where female to female comparison was conducted the mouth consistently negatively affected the results. The father-daughter relationship showed the least similarity overall and was only significant for three of the 11 portions of the face. In general, the combination of three single features achieved greater accuracy as shown by Areas Under the Curve (AUC) than all other portions of the face and single features were less predictive than the face as a whole.

As distrofias musculares doenças genéticas ou congênitas de caráter irreversível e progressivo são caracterizadas por degenerações da musculatura esquelética capazes de induzir anomalias ósseas como resultado da perda de função do músculo. Osteopenia, fraturas por fragilidade, escoliose, além de danos nos processos de crescimento e remodelação que levam a diferenças de forma e de tamanho são modificações ósseas decorrentes desse conjunto de doenças musculares. Os músculos da cabeça e pescoço são também afetados em vários tipos de distrofias, alterando a morfologia craniofacial e a oclusão dentária. Por sua vez, a cartilagem do processo condilar da mandíbula (PC), uma das estruturas responsáveis pelo crescimento facial, por estar sob a influência direta de fatores intrínsecos (genéticos, epigenéticos) e extrínsecos (estimulação mecânica, tipo de alimentação etc), pode ter a sua morfologia prejudicada já que os músculos faciais e da mastigação são, frequentemente, afetados nos distúrbios degenerativos neuromusculares. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar as repercussões morfológicas das distrofias musculares na cartilagem do PC de dois modelos murinos distintos de distrofia (dmdmdx e largemyd) e de seus respectivos controles: os camundongos C57BL/10. Os grupos animais (n=5) foram organizados de acordo com as idades (04 e 10 semanas), constituindo: C4, M4, L4, C10, M10 e L10 (camundongos controle, dmdmdx e largemyd de 04 e de 10 semanas, respectivamente). Após a eutanásia, os espécimes foram processados através de técnicas histológicas rotineiras e, posteriormente, submetidos às colorações de HE, Picrossírius e Safranina-O, para a evidenciação dos componentes celular e colágeno e imuno-histoquímica para a marcação de células reativas ao IGF-1 e IGF-1R. Os aspectos ultraestruturais também foram analisados através de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão. Os resultados mostraram que a cartilagem apresentou-se debilitada sob os efeitos da distrofia muscular, acarretando em modificações no padrão morfológico geral do tecido, na secreção das fibrilas colágenas e no acúmulo de proteoglicanas na MEC, as quais variaram de acordo com a idade e tipo de distrofia. Qualitativamente, a maior expressão de IGF-I e de seu receptor (IGF-IR) foi encontrada nos animais do grupo controle (C4 e C10), sendo observadas alterações do padrão de expressão dos mesmos no tecido cartilagíneo dos animais distróficos (dmdmdx e largemyd). Tais resultados sugerem prejuízos na maturação da cartilagem e formação óssea precoce e deficiente. / Muscular dystrophies are irreversible progressive diseases, genetic or congenital, characterized by degeneration of the skeletal muscles which can induce bone abnormalities as result of muscle function loss. Osteopeny, fragility fractures and scoliosis are bone modifications belonging to that set of muscular diseases. In addition, damages in the processes of growth and remodeling lead to skeletal differences in shape and size. Head and neck muscles are also affected in various types of dystrophies and may cause changes in both craniofacial morphology and dental occlusion. In turn, mandibular condylar cartilage (MCC) is one of the structures responsible for facial growth that is directly influenced by intrinsic (genetic, epigenetic) and extrinsic factors (mechanical stimulation, type of feeding, etc.). The morphology of MCC can be impaired since the facial and chewing muscles are often affected in the neuromuscular degenerative disorders. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of the muscular dystrophies on the growth of the MCC of murine models (dmdmdx and largemyd) and their respective controls the C57BL/10 mice. For that purpose, animal groups were formed (n = 5) divided according to their ages (04 and 10 weeks), into the following experimental groups: C4, M4, L4, C10, M10 and L10 (control mice, dmdmdx and largemyd of 04 and 10 weeks, respectively). After euthanasia, the specimens were processed through routine histological techniques, and then subjected to HE, Sirius red and Safranin-O staining for the disclosure of cellular components and collagen and immunohistochemistry for marking cells responsive to IGF-I and IGF-IR. The ultrastructural aspects were also analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. The results showed that the cartilage turned out to be impaired in the context of muscular dystrophy, leading to changes in general morphological pattern of the tissue, in the secretion of collagen fibrils and in proteoglycans accumulation on ECM. These findings varied to according age and type of dystrophy. Qualitatively, the major expression of IGF-I and its receptor (IGF-IR) occurred in the animals of the control group (C4 and C10), showing alterations of their expression pattern in cartilage of the dystrophic animals (dmdmdx and largemyd). These results suggest early cartilage maturation and poor bone formation.

Existem muitas afirmações de que a função nasorrespiratória comprometida pode exercer efeitos indesejáveis sobre a morfologia do complexo dentoesquelético. A presente investigação buscou verificar as influências da respiração bucal crônica sobre o crescimento e desenvolvimento dentofacial em idades mais precoces. O autor avaliou 73 crianças de ambos os sexos, com idade entre 3 e 6 anos. Após o diagnóstico otorrinolaringológico quanto à respiração, 44 crianças respiradoras bucais e 29 respiradoras nasais foram comparadas no que se refere ao padrão morfológico da face (analisado por meio de radiografia cefalométrica lateral) e características oclusais (analisadas nos modelos de estudo). Os resultados desse estudo permitiram concluir que as medidas do padrão esquelético, SN.GoGn, Ar-Go, BaN.PtGn, apresentaram-se diferentes nos respiradores bucais, quando comparados aos nasais, indicando tendência ao padrão dolicofacial. Não houve diferença significante entre os grupos quanto ao relacionamento ântero-posterior dos maxilares. Com relação às características oclusais, somente a distância intermolares apresentou correlação significativa, indicando estreitamento do arco maxilar nos respiradores bucais. Entretanto, não houve comprovação estatística de diferenças entre os dois grupos quanto as variáveis: distância intercaninos, relação ântero-posterior de caninos, plano terminal dos segundos molares decíduos, overbite, overjet, mordida aberta anterior e presença de mordida cruzada posterior. Conseqüentemente, sugere-se o restabelecimento da respiração nasal, assim que diagnosticado qualquer tipo de alteração na função respiratória. / There are many claims that abnormal nasorespiratory function can lead to undesirable effects on the dentofacial complex morphology. This investigation sought to verify the influences of cronic mouth breathing on dentofacial growth and development in early age children. The autor evaluated 73 children , both sexes, ranging in age from 3 to 6 years. After the otorrinolaryngologic breath diagnosis, 44 mouth breathing children and 29 nasal breathing were compared according to facial morphology pattern (which were analysed with lateral cefalometric radiograph) and oclusal caracteristics ( analysed on study casts). This data supports the conclusion that SN.GoGn, BaN.PtGn, Ar-Go, skeletal pattern measurements, were different when mouth and nasal breathing were compared, indicating a tendency to dolichofacial pattern. There were no significant differences between the anteroposterior relationship of the maxillares on both groups. According to oclusal caracteristics only the intermolar distance presented significant correlation, showing narrow maxillary arch on mouth breathing subjects. However, there were no statistics correlations between the two groups refering to : intercanine distance , anteroposterior canine relationship, second deciduous molar terminal plane, overbite, overjet, anterior open bite and posterior crossbite. Therefore, the restauration of nasal breathing should be emphasized as soon as the diagnosis of any alteration of respiratory function is obtained.

This thesis compared tooth widths, arch widths, and arch lengths; their differences between males and females, and changes from early mixed dentitions to adult dentitions. Comparing subjects who were known to have Angle Class I normal occlusion in their permanent dentitions to subjects who were known to be Class I or Class II crowded malocclusions in their permanent dentitions. These comparisons can only be achieved utilizing data from a longitudinal study, such as the Iowa Growth Study. Dental casts in the early mixed dentition (average age of 8.85 years) and in the adult dentition (average age 15.45 years) taken from subjects who did not receive orthodontic treatment during or in the dates prior to data collection were measured for this study. The casts utilized were from the Iowa Growth Study; all of the subjects were of European descent. The longitudinal sample of casts in the Iowa Growth study were made from white dental stone poured into alginate impressions from 1946 until 1960. The objectives of this study were to compare individual tooth widths, mean sum tooth widths, arch widths, arch length segments, and arch perimeters of Class I Normal (CIN) and Class I and II crowded dentitions (CD) in the early mixed (MD) and permanent (PD) dentitions to explore new methods of predicting crowding. The goal was to evaluate the significance of differences between MD and PD for tooth widths, arch lengths, and arch widths in both arches of CIN and CD subjects to determine values that may be useful for MD space analysis. Thirty males and thirty females from the Iowa Growth Study with CIN and CD occlusions were selected from the longitudinal study. Casts of MD and PD subjects were double measured with digital calipers by both the primary and secondary investigators. The average of each investigator's two measurements were used to determine measurement error. All other statistical analysis was based on the mean measurements taken by CPW. Descriptive statistics were computed. The normal non-crowded and crowded samples were compared with two-sample t-test, and changes from MD to PD with paired-sample t-test. Examiner measurement errors were tested with intra-class correlation coefficients. When the mean sums of MD and PD tooth widths were compared, using data from all 60 subjects, the CD group had a significantly greater mean sum of tooth widths than the CIN group. In both genders, crowded dentitions had significantly greater mean sum of tooth widths than CIN's for both the maxilla and mandible in MD and PD. When the mean sums of the arch lengths [Perimeters] were compared using data from all 60 subjects, the arch perimeters of the CD and CIN samples did not differ. It was concluded that total arch lengths Perimeters] were not significant indicators for crowding. Gender comparisons: Within the CIN group, males had numerically larger tooth width sums and arch length sums than females. The sum of maxillary and mandibular tooth widths for CIN's and CD (both males and females) mandibular tooth widths for CIN's and CD (both males and females pooled together and sexes separately. In the MD stage the mean sum of maxillary and mandibular arch lengths in the MD were significantly greater than those in the PD, because arch perimeters decrease during the transition from mixed to permanent dentitions. In summary, the results of this research thesis study showed that the sum of tooth widths in both arches had a significant association with dental crowding. In contrast, the sum of arch lengths [perimeter in both arches] did not differ between the normal and crowded samples. Additional analysis of the measurements taken in this thesis research project, the individual arch length segments, especially the canine and posterior arch length segments in the right and left sides of the lower arch in the mixed dentition casts, and their relation to the sum of the widths of the lower permanent canines and premolars in the normal and crowded malocclusions may give us important information about the development of crowded malocclusions.

Objective: To determine if significant differences exist in timings and rates of Peak Mandibular Growth (PMG) and mandibular projections of subjects with vertical, average and horizontal facial growth patterns. Methods: Sixty-three Caucasian orthognathic subjects with cephalograms (9 to 18 years) available from the Burlington Growth Centre were categorized into average, vertical and horizontal growth pattern groups based on their change in Y axis from age 10 to 16 years. PMG timing and rates were determined and mandibular projections measured. Comparisons were made by ANOVA. Results: Inter-group differences of PMG timing or rate were not statistically significant. Although not statistically significant, PMG of vertically growing females was 14 month earlier than all other subgroups. Horizontal mandibular projection differences approached significance in older children. Conclusions: No statistically significant differences were found in the timing or rate of PMG in different facial growth patterns. Differences in horizontal mandibular projections approached significance with growth.

Objective: To determine if significant differences exist in timings and rates of Peak Mandibular Growth (PMG) and mandibular projections of subjects with vertical, average and horizontal facial growth patterns. Methods: Sixty-three Caucasian orthognathic subjects with cephalograms (9 to 18 years) available from the Burlington Growth Centre were categorized into average, vertical and horizontal growth pattern groups based on their change in Y axis from age 10 to 16 years. PMG timing and rates were determined and mandibular projections measured. Comparisons were made by ANOVA. Results: Inter-group differences of PMG timing or rate were not statistically significant. Although not statistically significant, PMG of vertically growing females was 14 month earlier than all other subgroups. Horizontal mandibular projection differences approached significance in older children. Conclusions: No statistically significant differences were found in the timing or rate of PMG in different facial growth patterns. Differences in horizontal mandibular projections approached significance with growth.

The wide variation in infant maxillary morphology and cleft size of children with unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) and isolated cleft palate (CP) raise concerns about their possible influences on treatment outcome. The studies in this thesis aimed to investigate the relation between cleft size in infancy and crossbite at 5 years of age (Paper I); the impact of primary surgery on cleft size and maxillary arch dimensions from infancy to 5 years of age (Paper II); associations between cleft size, maxillary arch dimensions and facial growth in both UCLP and CP children (Paper III); and, to evaluate the relation between infant cleft size and nasal airway size and function in adults treated for UCLP (Paper IV). In homogenously treated groups of children with UCLP and CP, dental casts were used to measure cleft size and maxillary arch dimensions from infancy up to 5 years of age, and for crossbite recording at 5 years. Serial lateral cephalometric radiographs taken between 5 and 19 years of age in the same groups were used to study facial growth. Nasal airway size and function were evaluated by acoustic rhinometry, rhinomanometry, peak nasal inspiratory flow and odour test in a group of adults treated for UCLP. The main findings were: crossbite was a frequent malocclusion at 5 years of age in children with UCLP and large cleft widths at the level of the cuspid points in infancy were associated with less anterior and posterior crossbite in this group (Paper I). Cleft widths decreased after lip closure and/or soft palate closure in both UCLP and CP children. Initially, UCLP children had wider maxillary arch dimensions, but after hard palate closure, the transverse growth was reduced, and at 5 years, they had smaller maxillary arch widths than CP children had (Paper II). Maxillary arch depths and cleft widths in infancy were correlated with maxillary protrusion and sagittal jaw relationships in both UCLP and CP children (Paper III), but cleft width in infancy was not correlated with nasal airway size and function in adults treated for UCLP (Paper IV).

Existem muitas afirmações de que a função nasorrespiratória comprometida pode exercer efeitos indesejáveis sobre a morfologia do complexo dentoesquelético. A presente investigação buscou verificar as influências da respiração bucal crônica sobre o crescimento e desenvolvimento dentofacial em idades mais precoces. O autor avaliou 73 crianças de ambos os sexos, com idade entre 3 e 6 anos. Após o diagnóstico otorrinolaringológico quanto à respiração, 44 crianças respiradoras bucais e 29 respiradoras nasais foram comparadas no que se refere ao padrão morfológico da face (analisado por meio de radiografia cefalométrica lateral) e características oclusais (analisadas nos modelos de estudo). Os resultados desse estudo permitiram concluir que as medidas do padrão esquelético, SN.GoGn, Ar-Go, BaN.PtGn, apresentaram-se diferentes nos respiradores bucais, quando comparados aos nasais, indicando tendência ao padrão dolicofacial. Não houve diferença significante entre os grupos quanto ao relacionamento ântero-posterior dos maxilares. Com relação às características oclusais, somente a distância intermolares apresentou correlação significativa, indicando estreitamento do arco maxilar nos respiradores bucais. Entretanto, não houve comprovação estatística de diferenças entre os dois grupos quanto as variáveis: distância intercaninos, relação ântero-posterior de caninos, plano terminal dos segundos molares decíduos, overbite, overjet, mordida aberta anterior e presença de mordida cruzada posterior. Conseqüentemente, sugere-se o restabelecimento da respiração nasal, assim que diagnosticado qualquer tipo de alteração na função respiratória. / There are many claims that abnormal nasorespiratory function can lead to undesirable effects on the dentofacial complex morphology. This investigation sought to verify the influences of cronic mouth breathing on dentofacial growth and development in early age children. The autor evaluated 73 children , both sexes, ranging in age from 3 to 6 years. After the otorrinolaryngologic breath diagnosis, 44 mouth breathing children and 29 nasal breathing were compared according to facial morphology pattern (which were analysed with lateral cefalometric radiograph) and oclusal caracteristics ( analysed on study casts). This data supports the conclusion that SN.GoGn, BaN.PtGn, Ar-Go, skeletal pattern measurements, were different when mouth and nasal breathing were compared, indicating a tendency to dolichofacial pattern. There were no significant differences between the anteroposterior relationship of the maxillares on both groups. According to oclusal caracteristics only the intermolar distance presented significant correlation, showing narrow maxillary arch on mouth breathing subjects. However, there were no statistics correlations between the two groups refering to : intercanine distance , anteroposterior canine relationship, second deciduous molar terminal plane, overbite, overjet, anterior open bite and posterior crossbite. Therefore, the restauration of nasal breathing should be emphasized as soon as the diagnosis of any alteration of respiratory function is obtained.

As distrofias musculares doenças genéticas ou congênitas de caráter irreversível e progressivo são caracterizadas por degenerações da musculatura esquelética capazes de induzir anomalias ósseas como resultado da perda de função do músculo. Osteopenia, fraturas por fragilidade, escoliose, além de danos nos processos de crescimento e remodelação que levam a diferenças de forma e de tamanho são modificações ósseas decorrentes desse conjunto de doenças musculares. Os músculos da cabeça e pescoço são também afetados em vários tipos de distrofias, alterando a morfologia craniofacial e a oclusão dentária. Por sua vez, a cartilagem do processo condilar da mandíbula (PC), uma das estruturas responsáveis pelo crescimento facial, por estar sob a influência direta de fatores intrínsecos (genéticos, epigenéticos) e extrínsecos (estimulação mecânica, tipo de alimentação etc), pode ter a sua morfologia prejudicada já que os músculos faciais e da mastigação são, frequentemente, afetados nos distúrbios degenerativos neuromusculares. Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar as repercussões morfológicas das distrofias musculares na cartilagem do PC de dois modelos murinos distintos de distrofia (dmdmdx e largemyd) e de seus respectivos controles: os camundongos C57BL/10. Os grupos animais (n=5) foram organizados de acordo com as idades (04 e 10 semanas), constituindo: C4, M4, L4, C10, M10 e L10 (camundongos controle, dmdmdx e largemyd de 04 e de 10 semanas, respectivamente). Após a eutanásia, os espécimes foram processados através de técnicas histológicas rotineiras e, posteriormente, submetidos às colorações de HE, Picrossírius e Safranina-O, para a evidenciação dos componentes celular e colágeno e imuno-histoquímica para a marcação de células reativas ao IGF-1 e IGF-1R. Os aspectos ultraestruturais também foram analisados através de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão. Os resultados mostraram que a cartilagem apresentou-se debilitada sob os efeitos da distrofia muscular, acarretando em modificações no padrão morfológico geral do tecido, na secreção das fibrilas colágenas e no acúmulo de proteoglicanas na MEC, as quais variaram de acordo com a idade e tipo de distrofia. Qualitativamente, a maior expressão de IGF-I e de seu receptor (IGF-IR) foi encontrada nos animais do grupo controle (C4 e C10), sendo observadas alterações do padrão de expressão dos mesmos no tecido cartilagíneo dos animais distróficos (dmdmdx e largemyd). Tais resultados sugerem prejuízos na maturação da cartilagem e formação óssea precoce e deficiente. / Muscular dystrophies are irreversible progressive diseases, genetic or congenital, characterized by degeneration of the skeletal muscles which can induce bone abnormalities as result of muscle function loss. Osteopeny, fragility fractures and scoliosis are bone modifications belonging to that set of muscular diseases. In addition, damages in the processes of growth and remodeling lead to skeletal differences in shape and size. Head and neck muscles are also affected in various types of dystrophies and may cause changes in both craniofacial morphology and dental occlusion. In turn, mandibular condylar cartilage (MCC) is one of the structures responsible for facial growth that is directly influenced by intrinsic (genetic, epigenetic) and extrinsic factors (mechanical stimulation, type of feeding, etc.). The morphology of MCC can be impaired since the facial and chewing muscles are often affected in the neuromuscular degenerative disorders. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of the muscular dystrophies on the growth of the MCC of murine models (dmdmdx and largemyd) and their respective controls the C57BL/10 mice. For that purpose, animal groups were formed (n = 5) divided according to their ages (04 and 10 weeks), into the following experimental groups: C4, M4, L4, C10, M10 and L10 (control mice, dmdmdx and largemyd of 04 and 10 weeks, respectively). After euthanasia, the specimens were processed through routine histological techniques, and then subjected to HE, Sirius red and Safranin-O staining for the disclosure of cellular components and collagen and immunohistochemistry for marking cells responsive to IGF-I and IGF-IR. The ultrastructural aspects were also analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. The results showed that the cartilage turned out to be impaired in the context of muscular dystrophy, leading to changes in general morphological pattern of the tissue, in the secretion of collagen fibrils and in proteoglycans accumulation on ECM. These findings varied to according age and type of dystrophy. Qualitatively, the major expression of IGF-I and its receptor (IGF-IR) occurred in the animals of the control group (C4 and C10), showing alterations of their expression pattern in cartilage of the dystrophic animals (dmdmdx and largemyd). These results suggest early cartilage maturation and poor bone formation.

Positive identification can be problematic if fingerprinting, DNA, dental history, etc. are no longer available. This may be possible through techniques such as facial approximation, but any form of craniofacial identification requires intimate knowledge of human craniofacial anatomy. Where children are involved, craniofacial changes due to facial growth further complicate matters and require knowledge of tissue thickness and variation in facial shapes. These have hardly been studied in children of African descent. The aims of this study were to provide data on tissue thickness and craniofacial proportions of South African Black and Coloured children and to document the lateral profile shape changes between the ages of 6 and 13 years. Tissue thickness was measured using cephalograms of South African children (n = 388). After digitizing the images, tissue thickness measurements were taken at 11 mid-facial landmarks from each image using the iTEM measuring program. Craniofacial proportions were assessed through assessing standardized anterior and lateral facial photographs of 1749 children. Measurements of facial features were taken using iTEM, from which 28 standard facial indices were calculated. For both tissue thickness and craniofacial indices comparisons between groups per age, sex and ancestry were statistically analyzed. In addition, geometric morphometrics were used to describe lateral facial shape changes and differences age, sex and ancestry (n = 800). The results showed that tissue thickness differences at lower face landmarks are more pronounced in age groups per ancestry as opposed to differences per age and sex. Facial profile per facial shape, class and ancestry showed differences at all landmarks. Craniofacial indices indicated that Coloured children have wider heads, foreheads and faces compared to Black children. The height of the nose and lower lip is longer in Coloured children compared to Black children. In Coloured children, mandibular height and lower face height is shorter in relation to total face height. Males have wider heads, foreheads, mandibles and faces compared to females. The degree of prognathism is dictated by ancestry and to a lesser extent by age and sex as findings showed that maxillary prognathism was more prominent in Black children, while mandibular prognathism were more pronounced in male children. South Africans have a relative concave lateral facial profile due to the maxilla and mandible being more prognathic than in North American children. Differences in lateral face shape between children of various ages, sexes and ancestral groups were visualized through the relative displacement of landmarks related to the forehead and lower face. The resultant differences in lateral facial profile can assist in more accurate estimation of age and ancestry of unknown children. This research created reference datasets for tissue thickness and craniofacial indices of South African children of Black and Coloured ancestry per age and sex that will be useful in the diagnosis of facial dysmorphology and for facial reconstruction / approximation of juvenile remains. It also shed more light on facial growth patterns in the various groups. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Anatomy / PhD / Unrestricted