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The institutional economics of cultivated mushrooms in Swaziland : a study on value chains, transaction costs and collective action.Mabuza, Majola Lawrence. January 2013 (has links)
This study focuses on commercial mushroom production, a relatively new economic activity
in Swaziland that seeks to assist rural-based small-scale farmers to diversify and improve their
economic independence and livelihoods. The mushroom programme is in line with the
National Development Strategy, which, among its major objectives, aims to address povertyrelated
challenges through the promotion of non-conventional high-value agricultural
commodities that have not been explored by local farmers despite having a relatively high
consumer demand in local and international markets. In attempting to provide an impetus to
the mushroom industry, the Swaziland government currently offers free training in mushroom
production, extension services, high quality spawn at a very nominal fee, and free substrate
bags. Considering the geographical suitability and the magnitude of investment made towards
the mushroom development programme, there is a need to understand why many farmers are
not participating in the industry, and why Swaziland still imports more than 95 percent of
locally consumed cultivated mushrooms. There has also been no research so far on the
challenges and opportunities in producing, value adding, and marketing of mushrooms in
Swaziland. This study was, therefore, an attempt to address these knowledge gaps. It also
provided an opportunity to draw relevant policy and management implications to inform
future strategies in the industry. The specific objectives of the study were to: (i) identify and
examine the factors that influence households’ decisions to participate in mushroom
production; (ii) study the underlying mushroom production and market access constraints; (iii)
examine the effects of transaction cost factors that influence mushroom producers’ market
channel choice decisions and the quantity of mushrooms sold in selected channels; and (iv)
study the effects of organisational form on producers’ participation in collective
responsibilities.
Using cross-sectional data gathered from mushroom producers and non-producers, the results
of the Two-Stage Conditional Maximum Likelihood and Two-Stage Probit Least Squares
estimation methods revealed that farmers’ decisions to participate in the mushroom enterprise
are mainly influenced by institutional factors. Farmers who have undergone training in basic
oyster mushroom production, are located in close proximity to input and output markets, and
have positive perceptions towards mushrooms, are likely to participate in the mushroom
industry. The development of positive perceptions towards mushrooms is predominantly
influenced by the knowledge gained on their nutritional and therapeutical properties.
The value chain approach was used to identify the underlying factors constraining mushroom
production and producers’ participation in mainstream markets. Among the important
findings, the study showed that producers’ plans to expand production capacities are
hampered by the difficulty to access key inputs and services, which are centralised and fully
controlled by the government. Generally, local farmers produce below capacity in relatively
small low-cost structures, which are also not well equipped. As a result, farmers apply very
primitive management methods that eventually affect their productivity. These constraints are
partly responsible for the extremely low locally produced volumes and inconsistent market
supply, prompting local mushroom traders to rely on imports. Other constraints relate to the
lack of diversification as farmers currently produce only the oyster mushroom, yet consumers
are mostly interested in the button mushroom, which is favoured for its appearance and taste.
Currently, no cultivated mushrooms are exported from Swaziland and producers have not yet
engaged in any form of mushroom processing. Instead, from what they harvest, it was found
that about six to 10 percent is consumed at household level and the remainder sold through
four channels identified as: (i) the farm gate; (ii) retail market (supermarkets); (iii)
middlemen; and (iv) food services industry (restaurants/hotels). Among the four channels, the
retail market and farm gate were, respectively, identified as the most preferred. Between the
two, the retail market offers a comparatively higher producer price and a relatively more
dependable market. Cragg’s regression results revealed that producers who are likely to
supply the retail market are those who manage a relatively large number of spawn
impregnated bags, have a high labour endowment, own cold storage facilities, and are
affiliated to mushroom producing groups. However, the difficulty in accessing market
information and lack of bargaining power significantly constrains other producers’ plans to
supply the retail market; hence, they end up selling through less remunerative channels, such
as the farm gate. Producers’ decisions on the quantity of mushrooms supplied through the
retail market are significantly affected by the difficulty in accessing transport and uncertainty
about meeting the retailers’ quality requirements.
Over 90 percent of mushroom producers in Swaziland currently participate in the industry
through farmer groups. These groups are predominantly organised in two forms, depicted as
model A and B, respectively. In model A, besides establishing their own by-laws, members
produce mushrooms in one growing house where they share the costs and benefits of all preproduction,
production and marketing activities. In model B, members also establish their
own by-laws and share all pre-production activities. However, instead of producing under one
roof, each member manages his/her own growing house and members are at liberty to make
their own marketing arrangements independently. The results of the Propensity Score
Matching method indicated that producers affiliated to model B groups have significantly
higher levels of cooperation, which is evidenced in making joint decisions and performing
shared manual activities. Participation in such groups also improves producers’ knowledge of
the enterprise, and reduces the likelihood of internal free-riding.
The overall results of the study point to the need to strengthen farmer training in mushroom
production and value-addition. In attempting to improve producers’ access to key inputs and
services, it is recommended that the government should relinquish its position (to the private
sector) as the only provider of these services, allowing public institutions to assume a
monitoring role. Producers’ competitiveness and sustainable participation in the mushroom
value chain can be enhanced by institutionalising and strengthening collective action, which
can possibly enable them to achieve economies of scale benefits in the input and product
markets, and improve their bargaining position. As indicated in the empirical chapters, market
availability for mushrooms is not a challenge in Swaziland. However, the lack of a market
information system, expert assistance in agribusiness management, poor value chain
governance, and lack of vertical coordination, predispose producers to high marketing and
transaction costs such that they end up selling through less remunerative marketing channels.
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Constraints on smallholder dairying in Swaziland : Manzini Region & surrounding areas.Malima, Boyce Thabo. January 2005 (has links)
Summary:
Swaziland has long had a disparity between the supply and demand of milk. Even at present
milk production continues to be less than the market demand. The quantitative contribution of
smallholder dairy farmers to local milk production remains unknown because of poor record
keeping. This study was aimed at attaining a clear understanding of the dynamics of
smallholder dairying in Swaziland, including the identification and understanding of the
constraints faced by farmers in dairying, with the hope of devising workable solutions to
them.
A sample of 118 smallholder dairy farms were covered in this study, with a total herd of 306
lactating cows, comprising mainly of Jerseys and Holstein Friesians, with some cross breeds.
There were no significant differences in mean milk yield/cow with respect to farmer gender (P
> 0.05) and Agro-ecological zone location (P > 0.05) of the farms. Milking frequency had a
significant effect on milk yield, since cattle milked once a day had lower (P < 0.05) milk yields
than those milked twice a day. The cattle had extensively long calving intervals i.e. 448 ± 166
days, ranging from 292 to 1082 days. Low milk yield and poor reproductive performance of
cattle were found to be mainly due to poor nutrition, breeding practices and stock quality.
These are primarily a result of insufficient farmer training and inadequate technical
assistance, scarce availability of quality stock, lack of investment resources and market
support that includes favourable milk prices for farmers to make money.
This performance of the Swazi smallholder dairy herd was then evaluated by comparing it to
the performance of a larger, well-managed herd of known pedigree. Lactation records from
252 Jersey cows and 108 Holstein Friesian cows were obtained from Cedara Agricultural
Research Institute, covering the periods; July, 2002 to July, 2004 and November, 2002 to
April, 2004, respectively. Cows were grouped by parity and calving season and the gamma
function proposed by Wood (Y = An(b) e(-cn)) was used to fit standard lactation curves on group
data. The curve parameters A and b increased with parity, while that of c and s (persistency
of lactation at peak) decreased, producing standard lactation curves save for the Holstein
Friesian summer calvers, which produced atypical curves. The R(2) values (goodness of fit)
increased with parity. Animal parity and calving season were found to influence the peak and
shape of the lactation curves and their parameter estimates. The performance of the Swazi
smallholder herd showed a mean deviation of the observed daily milk yield of the Holstein
Friesian breed from the expected yield to be - 3.47 (SD 6.052) kg and that of the Jersey
breed was - 16.92 (SD 5.473) kg. The mean proportional deviation of observed milk yield
from the expected yield for the Holstein Friesian breed was - 0.3 (SD 0.37) and that of the
Jersey breed to be - 0.6 (SD 0.19). The proportional milk yield deviation of the Holstein
Friesian breed can be explained using the equation Y = O.1322(SE = 0.1293) x - 2.3581 (SE
= 0.20639), where x = expected milk yield and Y is the proportional deviation of the observed
milk yield deviation from the expected milk yield. With respect to the smallholder Jersey
breed, no relationship was found that could explain the proportional milk yield deviation. The
smallholder herd was shown to be underperforming, considering the potential for higher milk
yields of the two breeds.
In the quest to gain a greater understanding of the dynamics of smallholder dairying, the
sample of 118 farmers was further analysed using multivariate statistics to categorise them
based on their herd sizes, herd structures, management and success perceptions in dairying.
The analysis produced three clusters (categories): cluster 1 had the largest herd sizes and
poor milk production efficiency; cluster 2 had intermediate herd sizes, the highest number of
farmers and more efficient milk production per cow. This cluster, however, had the highest
proportion of calf mortalities. Cluster 3 had the smallest herd size, the lowest calf to cow ratio
and the second highest calf mortality. Record keeping across all clusters was very poor and
the average milk yield per cow was generally low. Most of the farmers do not appreciate the
importance of annual calving of their cows as an integral part of the success of their dairy
projects and winter feed supplementation is very poor across all the clusters. There remains
a great need for the enlightenment of the farmers on the importance of good nutrition,
breeding, calf rearing and record keeping in successful dairying. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.
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