Over 250,000 farmers have committed suicide across India since 1995, the majority of deaths concentrated in central India’s cotton belt. Scholarly consensus views suicides amongst the peasantry as debt-induced: transgenic cotton cultivation imprisons producers in downward monetary debt spirals. Based on two years of fieldwork in rural Vidarbha, my dissertation, ‘The Life of Debt in Rural India,’ examines the proximate entanglements of debt and techno-material transformations in cotton cultivation. It demonstrates that with the emergence of cash-debt as an essential component of the productive process, differentiated interest rates have become the medium of negotiating social and familial proximity. From a formerly caste-specific proscribed activity, the generalization of usurious lending has made monetary debt the language of social prestations (of gifts, grain and labour), reshaping customary understandings of status, honour and obligation. This project contributes to the anthropology of South-Asia, the peasantry and debt in two ways. In ethnographically tracing the force of debt as social obligation and the imbrication of modes of production with symbolic cultural life, I demonstrate the inadequacy of an economistic obsession with debt as monetary liability. Accordingly, against characterizations of the ‘risk-averse’ peasant in a customary moral economy, I describe an emergent ethical economy centered on uncertainty as risk becomes a structural precondition of peasant life.

Thesis (MSc (Agriculture)) --University of Limpopo, 2007 / The main objective of this study is to identify the socio-economic factors associated with the level of annual farm turnover of emerging farmers in South Africa. This study defines emerging farmers as those farmers that are participating in the market and have intentions to produce and sell more. The study is based on a randomly selected quota sample of 500 emerging farmers surveyed from the nine provinces of SA in 2005. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis and logistic regression are used to analyse the data. Factor analysis is used to determine the emerging farmers’ access and utilization of agricultural infrastructure and support services. The logistic regression is used to predict the likely positioning of emerging farmers in the high and low farm turnover groups. Farm turnover is based on how a farm household organizes and manages its resources and how it is able to interact with the outside stakeholders. The level of annual farm turnover is categorized into four groups, low turnover group 1 (LTG1), low turnover group 2(LTG2), high turnover group 1 (HTG1) and high turnover group 2(HTG2). Whilst many studies on constraints to production in agriculture in South Africa have identified infrastructure as such a constraint, few have attempted to study the extent to which emerging farmers are able to access and utilize output markets infrastructure. The results show that the local output markets are generally more accessible to emerging farmers. Access to external markets is absent. The implication of this is that it is important for policymakers to know that farmers access output markets in a package form and that the role of locating output markets in centers can stimulate agricultural and rural development. The creation of favourable environments for the participation of emerging farmers in the mainstream of the economy has been the most significant initiative in promoting structural change, away from subsistence farming towards commercialization of agriculture in South Africa. Despite the new opportunities that have been created to facilitate participation of emerging farmers in the first economy, emerging farmers continue to face a host of challenges ranging from socio-economic to farm based constraints. These constraints have made some emerging farmers to fall in the high farm turnover group and others in the low farm turnover group. Logistic regression analysis is used to identify socio-economic factors that place emerging farmers in one group versus the other and to identify constraints faced by emerging farmers. Six logistics models are developed to distinguish emerging farmers in one group from another. Model 1 compares the HTG2 and the LTG1. The factors that increase the likelihood of being in an HTG2 rather than in an LTG1 are farm size, level of education, sugar farming, tarred road to the local fresh produce market, distance to the output market, being NAFU (National African Farmers Union) membership, and access to ground water. Horticulture and livestock farming decrease the chances of being in the HTG2. Factors that increases the likelihood of being in the HTG2 rather that LTG2 are farm size, level of education, sugar farming, road conditions to the local fresh produce market and access to ground water. Farm structure decreases the chances of being in the HTG2. The main factors affecting most of the emerging farmers in South Africa are the size of farm, level of education, distance to output market which leads to lack of transport and that most of the emerging farmers uses surface water for irrigation. Some of the farmers face poor road condition to the output market and they produce less to the output market. Access to high value commodities such as sugar does increase. The policy required to encourage commercialization must be tailored to the needs of the different categories of emerging farmers in South Africa. The low turnover group of farmers appears to contain community garden farmers. These farmers will require the comprehensive set of programmes that are commonly recommended. The programmes include land reform, educational programmes, infrastructural services, marketing and / Land and Agricultural Development Bank of South Africa

A study focusing on farm financial stress in Virginia was conducted to provide information to educators. The financial situation of Virginia farmers during the 1980's was reviewed. The years 1983, 1984, and 1985 were determined to be the time during the 1980s when farmers' financial situations were most severely stressed. Attention was directed towards corn, soybean, and wheat farmers since this group was readily identifiable as being financially stressed. Fifteen personal interviews of farmers were conducted in seven counties where the majority of these crops are grown. For comparison purposes, part of the interviews were conducted with individuals who are still farming and part with individuals who were forced to exit farming due to financial adversity. Comparing the information gathered from farmers in a favorable financial condition with the information gathered from those farmers in a vulnerable financial condition, some factors that helped farmers survive the agricultural depression of the 1980’s were discovered. Farmers in favorable financial condition are superior managers, operate timely businesses, borrow and spend conservatively, are more educated, have more years of farming experience, and use better financial and production recordkeeping practices. Access to marketing information is also important for farmer survivability. Producers in favorable financial condition own larger percentages of their operated land, and they utilize more family labor. / Master of Science

Thesis (M.Sc.)(Agriculture) --University of Limpopo, 2008. / This paper used primary data collected from 73 small-scale farmers (16 borrowers and 57 non-borrowers) in the Greater Letaba Local Municipality (GLLM) of Limpopo Province of South Africa. The general objective of the study is to analyze farmer-household characteristics that may influence farmers’ decision about whether or not to use credit. Maximum Likelihood Probit Model was used to analyze farmer-households characteristics assumed to be affecting small-scale farmers’ decision about credit. The following variables: farmers’ age in years, gender, marital status and farming experience in years have positive significant effect on farmers’ decision to use credit. On the contrary, number of years of formal education and membership to farmers’ association has negative significant effect. The probabilities for each variable were quantified. The study advocates and emphasizes access to credit by small-scale farmers as a major factor in their production process and production efficiency. Training among both borrowers and non-borrowers in identification of profitable projects and the use of credit for agricultural production is recommended. This kind of training may play a major role in stimulating the demand for credit by these farmers. / N/A

Thesis (MSc. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / The avocado industry is a major industry in South Africa and this can be seen by its economic contribution. Limpopo Province is one of the major avocado producing areas in South Africa, and avocado production within the province ranges from smallholder to commercial production. Smallholder avocado producers within the province have a significant role to play, especially if their full potential is unleashed. For smallholder farmers to play such a role they need to be competitive. The concept of competitiveness can be defined as the ability of an industry or firm to compete successfully in order to achieve sustainable growth while earning at least the opportunity cost on resources employed. The main aim of this study was to analyse the determinants of competitiveness of smallholder avocado farmers in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province based on the Porter’s Diamond model framework in order to assess the level of competitiveness of farmers and to establish how the farmers can be assisted to reach their full potential. The study was conducted in the Vhembe District Municipality and a sample of 60 farmers was interviewed. SPSS (SPSS 26.0) was used to analyse the data. Three analytical techniques were used in the analysis for this study. Firstly, factor analysis was used to reduce and group the number of variables associated with competitiveness of the farmers. Secondly, profitability analysis through enterprise budgeting was used to categorise the farmers into two groups; competitive and noncompetitive. Thirdly, Logistic regression was used to establish the socio-economic and Porter’s Diamond model determinants that could be linked to the competitiveness of the farmers. From the factor analysis, 5 factors were extracted, namely; “chance”, “government, related and supporting industries”, “factor conditions”, “firm strategy structure and rivalry” and “demand conditions”. From the profitability analysis the farmers were grouped into competitive and non-competitive categories with 22 farmers classified as being competitive and 38 farmers as being non-competitive. From the results of logistic regression, 7 out of 12 hypothesised variables were found to be statistically significant, these were; age of farmer, number of trees planted, related and supporting industries, firm strategy structure and rivalry, chance, demand conditions and factor conditions. Chance was the only variable with a statistically significant v negative influence on the competitiveness of the farmers, this was because factors that were tested for their influence on the competitiveness of the farmers are among others: Crime, HIV/AIDS, fires, frost and floods. Based on the research findings, several policy suggestions were made, these include; mentorship and encouragement of youth participation in farming, provision of agricultural land, capacity building for farmers, government support and stakeholder mobilization, specialized extension service and formation of cooperatives as well as encouraging commercialization.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Pasture Science)) --University of Limpopo, 2014 / Due to shortage of adequate pasture in large parts of South Africa, winter survival poses a problem to farmers. A shortage in winter grazing is the major problem on most farms in South Africa. Animals loose weight in winter which leads to low reproduction, production of milk, mutton and meat. The winter feed shortages counteract also the possible good performance of animals during summer. Winter supplementation contributes largely to high input costs in livestock production, which can make this enterprise uneconomically. This study was done at two different localities: Hygrotech’s experimental farm at Dewageningsdrift, Gauteng and Nooitgedacht Agricultural Development center, Mpumalunga. Five winter fodder crop cultivars (Witteberg oats, Overberg oats, LS 35 stooling rye, LS 62 stooling rye and Cloc 1 Triticale) were planted on six planting dates (05 April, 04 May, 06 June, 20 July, 20 August and 26 September). Five cutting treatments were applied on Dewageningsdrift:  First cut 8 weeks after planting and after that re-growth every six weeks (Ct 8),  First cut 10 weeks after planting and after that re-growth every six weeks (Ct 10),  First cut 12 weeks after planting and after that re-growth cut every six weeks (Ct 12),  First cut 14 weeks after planting and after that re-growth cut every six weeks (Ct 14),  First cut when more than 50% of plants were in the reproduction stage (RS). The same cultivars that were used at Dewageningsdrift were used on Nooitgedacht ADC. Only one planting date was applied here that was 02 February 2007. The cutting treatments differed also from that on Dewageningsdrift. Material was cut for the first time when it reached a grazing stage (± 50-60 cm high) and after that re-growth was measured four weeks. The main conclusions from the study were that, Witteberg oats has retained its nutritional value longer than other cultivars. LS 35 stooling rye was an early or short duration growing cultivar, if planted in February to April it will provide grazing early/Mid-winter. However it can also be planted in July to grow in spring. LS 62 stooling rye is a medium to long duration growing cultivar which optimum production period will be in late winter and spring. Witteberg oats is a medium/late producer and a long duration growing cultivar, thus if planted early (April) it can provide grazing until late winter. Overberg oats is an early/med long duration growing type, if planted in April it will produce mid-winter, planted in May to July it will produce late winter and planted in August it will provide spring grazing. Cloc 1 triticale is a long duration growing type. It will produce late winter when planted in April to July and in spring when planted in August/September.

Thesis (M.Sc (Agricultural Economics)) --University of Limpopo, 2015 / Agriculture plays an important role in uplifting the economy of South Africa. Small-scale farmers in rural areas are linked with poverty and operate inefficiently due to over or under utilization of some of the factors of production. This study aimed at analysing the technical and allocative efficiency of small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen municipality. The objectives of the study were: (i) To assess the level of technical and allocative efficiency of small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen municipality, (ii) To identify socio-economic factors affecting the efficiency of small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen municipality and (iii) to investigate the areas of improvement with regard to the operational management of the small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen municipality. The study employed the Cobb-Douglas production function and the logistic regression model to analyse data. The Cobb-Douglas production function results revealed that small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen municipality are technically efficient in the production of maize with the highest mean technical efficiency value of 0.71%. The study further revealed that farmers were allocatively inefficient with a mean allocative efficiency value of 0.39%. The logistic regression analysis revealed important variables such as the level of education (1.05), experience in farming (2.74), access to irrigation water (0.59), purchase of hybrid seed (0.74), access to credit (2.13) and extension visits (0.85) were positively significant towards the efficiency of farmers. Variables such as gender of the farmer (-1.79) and off-farm income (-2.72) were found to be negatively significant towards the efficiency of small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen Municipality. The findings obtained in this study could be quite useful to policy makers. This study recommend that there is a need for more visits from the extension officers as well as training on inputs allocation, since variables like Seed (0.41), fertilizer (0.17), capital (0.71) and expenses (-0.204) were found to be inefficiently allocated in the production of maize. The provision of easy, quick and adequate credit deserves to be a top priority on the agenda of policy makers since most small-scale maize farmers in Tzaneen municipality does not receive off-farm income. Small-scale farmers in Tzaneen municipality also need to have access to enough arable land in order to increase production. Small-scale farmers in South Africa and other developing countries contribute to employment creation and food security in the households, therefore, it is important that government fully support such farmers.

The focus of this study is to explore and expand farmer learning processes in sustainable agriculture workplace contexts. It examines change oriented learning processes in the context of three sustainable agriculture practices. The study begins by discussing the history and emergence of environmental discourses and approaches; sustainable agriculture; and the histories of three kinds of sustainable agriculture practices: Permaculture, Organic Farming and Machobane Farming System. It also traces the evolution of agricultural extension approaches within the wider context of education for sustainable development. The main focus of the study is an exploration of how farmer learning can be mediated through an expansive learning process. The study methodology surfaces some of the contradictions in sustainable agriculture and learning activity systems that farmers encounter in learning and practising sustainable agriculture. It uses these contradictions as sources of expansive learning in and between the respective activity systems of farmers, sustainable agriculture facilitators, agricultural extension workers (conventional) and organic entrepreneurs. As shown in the study, the expansive learning processes result in the modelling, implementation and reviewing of solutions to contradictions being faced in the learning and practice of sustainable agriculture. The study also proposes a number of tools that can be adapted and used by development farmers and agricultural trainers to examine and expand learning as well as build farmer agency. The study was conducted in three case study sites in Lesotho, South Africa and Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe the study is located in Hwedza district in the St Margaret Primary School and community that learn, practise and facilitate the learning of Permaculture within the Schools and Colleges Permaculture Programme (SCOPE). The second study site is in South Africa: Durban urban and peri-urban areas where a community of organic farmers, facilitators and entrepreneurs coordinate the marketing of their produce through Isidore Farm and Earth Mother Organic and support each other to learn and practise organic farming. The third study site is based in the Mafeteng and Mohale‟s Hoek districts of Lesotho where the focus was on farmers who learn and practise the Machobane Farming System (MFS) and are supported in this by the Rural Self Development Association (RSDA) and the Machobane Agricultural Development Foundation (MADF). Drawing on three sensitising concepts of dialectics, reflexivity and agency, the study worked with Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) underpinned by critical realism to reveal how farmer learning is mediated and expanded. The theory of practice/habitus also provided a useful theoretical lens with which to examine data generated. Using a two-phased, multiple embedded case study approach, the study worked within the broad framework of social learning. It used semi-structured individual and group interviews, observations and document analysis to explore learning processes and generate „mirror‟ data. This data was then used in Change Laboratory Workshops, within the Developmental Work Research methodology, where double stimulation and focus group discussions contributed to expanding learning processes. Drawing on critical realism the study used inductive, abductive and retroductive modes of inference to analyse data in each case study as well as across case studies. The findings of the study reveal that farmer learning is influenced by both intrinsic motives, such as identity, and extrinsic motives which are primarily associated with economic, ecological and health benefits. Farmers learn through scaffolding and mediating tools that link everyday and scientific knowledge. They also learn from fellow farmers through observation, practising and experimentation. Some of the issues that were raised in connection with farmer learning processes are: language; time to learn, practice and appropriate concepts; time to improve the natural resource base while at the same time improving income generation; and responses to climate change. The study also found that farmer learning and practice of sustainable agriculture in the case studies investigated, is influenced by past and current agricultural and educational policies; societal values and attitudes; social and cultural backgrounds; work affordances and gender relations; quality of training offered; poverty; and, HIV and AIDS. In the second phase of the study, which built on the problematic situations being encountered by research participants (sustainable agriculture farmers, sustainable agriculture facilitators, extension workers, and organic marketers) to surface contradictions, the main finding was that the expansive learning process has potential to enhance farmer learning and practice of sustainable agriculture. It does this by mobilising distributed cognition among participants as well as their preparedness to act. Through the expansive learning processes in each case study, research participants were able to question their practices, surface contradictions, model solutions and implement them, and thus build individual, collective and relational agency reflexively. Observation of this required micro-analysis of agentive talk and reflective talk. The study contributes in-depth insight into participatory research and learning processes, especially within the context of people-centred learning and innovation in the agricultural development arena. It provides empirical and explanatory insight into how change oriented social learning can emerge and be expanded in Education for Sustainable Development, explaining learning and change relationships in three sustainable agricultural practices. It also provides learning and extension tools to work with contradictions that arise from intentionality, experience, context and history in farming and training activity systems. Its key contribution lies in providing in-depth insight into mobilisation of human agency and reflexivity in change oriented sustainable agriculture learning and development, processes that are critical for responding to contemporary socio-ecological issues and risks.

This study examines the socio-economic impact of fair trade on black emerging citrus fruit farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It is a comparative analysis of farmers involved in fair trade and those who are not. Farmers from Riverside Enterprise and Sundays River Citrus Cooperative were examined to evaluate the impact of fair trade. Such impact was analyzed through looking at access farmers have to foreign markets and their ability to receive high income returns from these markets. The study also discusses the influence fair trade has on the social and economic development of the farmers’ communities. The findings of the study indicate how most fair trade communities have benefited financially and through public infrastructure such as crèches, learning centers and access to computers for both farmers and workers. Such public developments are funded through the fair trade social dividend which is a premium farmers receive for selling their fruit under fair trade. However, the study findings also indicate the limitations of fair trade; farmers have to incur high costs to become fair trade accredited. The study also examines the commodity value chains (hereinafter referred to as CVC) for citrus fair trade farmers and non fair trade farmers. This analysis reveals the procedure of value chains, their benefits and constraints.