M. Tech. Nature Conservation / Ticks are blood feeding external parasites of mammals, birds, and reptiles throughout the world. Tick infestation is considered to be one of the main constraints to successful game ranching in southern Africa. Several blood parasites are transmitted by ticks and have been incriminated as the cause of death in several wildlife species Ticks thus affect wildlife and domestic animal management worldwide, with approximately 850 species of ticks having been described The aim of the thesis is to collect and describe fully the nature and extent of the tick cohort of a semi-intensive and control free game ranch in the Limpopo Province of South Africa farm and to establish the environmental management effects on tick abundances and species.

No abstract available. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

This study was motivated by the realisation that the Eastern Cape Province is a leading producer of cattle, but few to none of those cattle makes it to auction markets. The study was conducted in the Elliot area, selected as an area with a high number of Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development farms, as well as private farms and communal farmers. Most of these farmers battled to sell their cattle to the auctions or abattoirs. The objective of the study was therefore to investigate challenges facing smallholder beef cattle famers and those factors which prevented them to access auction markets to sell their cattle in the Elliot area. The second was to assess the effectiveness of the Livestock Improvement Scheme in support of smallholder beef cattle farmers in terms of the outcome and achievements of training these individuals to become successful farmers. The last was to find out how beef cattle farmers benefited from the scheme. Both semi-structured interviews and an open-ended questionnaire were used to collect data. A sample size of 10 farmers (eight farmers from LRAD/private and two from communal farmers) was selected, and observation was done on the auctions and abattoirs available in Elliot. The study found that smallholder cattle farmers struggle to sell their stock through formal and informal markets, as they are faced with marketing constraints.Such marketing constrainst are lack of marketing information, drought, poor condition of cattle, lack of infrastructure, shortage of land for grazing, price takers, stock theft, transaction costs, problems with cattle identification, and lack of physical access to markets. The study has also made recommendations on how smallholder cattle farmers of Elliot can be developed to procure markets to sell their stock.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Environmental health: Food safety )) - Central university of Technology, Free State, 2013 / Food processing plants and agricultural environments have a long-standing history of being known to provide a conducive environment for the prevalence and distribution of microorganisms which emanate as a consequence of activities undertaken in such premises. Microorganisms in the aforementioned environments may be found in the atmosphere (airborne), and/or on food contact surfaces. Airborne microorganisms from food handlers and in food products and raw materials (as part of bioaerosols) have in the past been implicated as having a potential to cause adverse health effects (especially in indoor environments) and therefore also to have economic implications. Recently their effect on food safety has received increased interest. The recent international interest in bioaerosols in the food industry has played a role in rapidly providing increased understanding of bioaerosols and their effects in different food processing environments. However, there is still a lack of research on the actual impact of bioaerosols over time in most of the food premises especially in Southern Africa and other developing countries. The overall purpose of this dissertation was to assess possible microbial contaminants and the role of selected environmental parameters on these microbes at a dairy farm plant in central South Africa. In relation to the purpose of the study, the objectives of this dissertation were to investigate and establish the food handler’s food safety knowledge, attitude, behaviour and practices. The sub-objective was to investigate the prevalence and distribution of microbial contaminants (both airborne and food contact surface populations), and concomitant environmental parameters. The microbe isolates from both investigations (i.e. air samples and food contact surfaces) were identified to strain level using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization – time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). The findings of this study in relation to food handlers’ food safety knowledge, attitude, behaviour and practices indicated a dire need for training of employees as well as improved health and hygiene measures as emphasised by some of the identified strains. The environmental parameters (both indoor and outdoor) were similar, with no relationship established between airborne microbes’ prevalence and environmental parameters. The samples of the airborne microbial populations in both indoor and outdoor environments were similar. Airborne microbial counts at the dairy farm plant over the entire duration of the study ranged between 1.50 x 101cfu.m-3and 1.62 x 102cfu.m-3. Microbial counts on food contact surfaces ranged between 2.50 x 102 cfu.cm-2 and 1.10 x 105 cfu.cm-2 over the entire duration of the study. A wide variety of microorganisms (from air and food contact surfaces) such as the Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, as well as fungi were present at the dairy farm plant. A number of the isolated genera have previously been associated with agricultural environments whilst others are associated with hospital environments. The positively identified strains were from genera such as Aeromonas, Arthrobacter, Candida, Pseudomonas, Pantoea, Citrobacter, Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Escherichia, Rhodococcus and Rhodotorula, amongst others. The isolation of microorganisms associated with food spoilage and foodborne disease outbreaks, which are known as indicator organisms such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus and Bacillus from both air and surface samples, signified possible faecal contamination and could be attributed to poor health and hygiene practices at the dairy farm plant. Despite the isolation of microorganisms associated with food spoilage and foodborne disease outbreaks, the isolation of microorganisms not usually associated with the food processing industry (usually associated with hospital environments) was an enormous and serious concern which suggested a need for further investigations at dairy farm plants as the implications of these pathogenic microorganisms in food is not known. The isolation of similar microorganisms from both the air samples and surface swabs suggests that airborne microbes have a potential of settling on food contact surfaces, therefore having a potential to contaminate dairy products which are known to be more prone to contamination and which, because of their nutritional status, serve as a good substrate for the growth of microorganisms.

Thesis (M. Tech. (Environmental health)) - Central University of technology, Free State, 2013 / Introduction Dairy farms in central South Africa produce a substantial amount of milk, which is sold in Bloemfontein, Free State. Large volumes of unpasteurized (raw) milk is collected on the dairy farms, which undergoes further processing before it reaches the consumer at the end of the production line. There is a large proportion of the population that, in most cases unknowingly, consumes raw milk that has bacterial counts substantially higher than legal standards. Poor quality unpasteurized milk is either sold as fresh milk in the informal market, or as dairy products, such as cheese, manufactured from unpasteurized milk. Consumers are therefore, in most cases, unaware of the poor quality dairy products they consume. Milk quality is usually assessed in terms of bacterial content, which include Escherichia coli, coliforms and total bacterial count. The bacterial quality of milk is influenced by a number of factors, including farming practices, structural design of the milking shed, herd health and quality of water used in the dairy. If the highest level of hygiene practices is maintained, contamination of the milk by pathogenic microorganisms will be controlled, however, any drop in the vigilance of hygiene practices could result in unacceptable high levels of pathogenic microorganisms resulting in poor quality raw milk. Poor quality raw milk will inevitably result in poor quality pasteurized milk, containing unacceptably high levels of pathogenic organisms, which will eventually reach the consumer. Objectives The objectives of this study were to assess the quality of milk and influencing factors of milk produced on 83 dairy farms that supply milk intended for further processing to the greater Mangaung region, Central South Africa. Influencing factors investigated included, water quality and hygiene of milk contact surfaces, namely pulsator surfaces and milk pipeline surfaces. Methods Standard sampling procedures were followed when milk was sampled from bulk milk tanks, water at the point of use in the dairy, as well as collection of surface swabs. Escherichia coli, coliforms, total bacterial counts and somatic cell counts in milk were determined in terms of the regulations relating to milk and dairy products, and for water in terms of drinking water standards. These data were analysed and the factors that directly influence bacterial quality of milk were identified. Results 93% of the dairy farms displayed E. coli in their bulk milk containers, which did not comply with the legal standard. For coliforms, 86% of the milk samples did not comply with the legal standard. The total bacterial count of 85% of the milk samples did comply with the legal standard. The somatic cell count of 42% of the milk samples did not comply with the legal standard. The pulsator surfaces as well as the milk pipeline surfaces of 13% of the dairy farms displayed the presence of E. coli. 80% of the pulsator surfaces and 78% of the milk pipeline surfaces did comply with the legal standard pertaining to coliforms. The total bacterial count of pulsator surfaces revealed that 19% complied, whereas 29% of the milk pipeline surfaces complied with the legal standard. The water data further revealed that 31% of the dairy farms contained E. coli in the water used in the dairies. 63% of the dairy farms contained more than the allowable number of coliforms in their water. Chi-square tests revealed significant differences (p > 0.05) between the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and water; the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and milk pipeline surfaces; the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and pulsator surfaces and the presence or absence of E. coli in milk and the positioning of the cows in the milking shed. When milk quality indexes were calculated for all the farms, only four farms were classified with excellent milk, the remainder were all classified as producing poor quality milk. The hygiene quality indexes revealed that the hygiene practices on all the farms were not up to standard. Discussion and conclusion The study revealed that the milk produced for commercial processing and distribution in the greater Mangaung region of central South Africa was of poor quality. It is often mistakenly believed that the pasteurization process will remove all microorganisms from milk. As this is not the case, it is of major concern that milk delivered commercially is not of acceptable quality. Furthermore, it could be concluded that the quality of milk products from raw milk were also probably not of acceptable quality. The results further revealed that the possible contributing factors to the poor quality milk produced by the 83 commercial dairy farms were; poor quality water used in dairy sheds and contaminated milk contact surfaces. From this study it could be concluded that the overall status of milk production on the 83 commercial dairy farms studied, did not meet the standards required for milk quality, water quality and hygiene practices.

Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Technology: Information Technology, Durban Institute of Technology, Durban, South Africa, 2005. / Throughout Africa, growing human populations and resulting loss of wildlife habitat is a critical issue for most animal species. It is more and more common for privately owned small or medium sized farms to reintroduce wildlife on their land and such protected areas are fast becoming the only refuges available to wild animals. However a comprehensive understanding of the complex ecological processes taking place is vital for the effective management of restricted areas and the conservation of biodiversity. Due to the enormous complexity of an ecological system and the long periods of the related dynamics, it is very difficult to analyse the interaction between animals and plant populations without suitable computer models. In this thesis, the dynamics between elephant and trees (a major food source) are considered using computer simulations. / M

M.A. / This research project assesses the impact of South Africa's Land Reform Programme on the Land Redistribution Programme and thus, on the productivity and sustainability of farming operations in Limpopo Province. The impact of the Land Redistribution Programme was examined on five farms within four district municipalities in Limpopo Province, namely: Capricorn Municipality (Vaalkop 656LS), Vhembe Municipality (Spitzkop), Waterberg Municipality (Hartebeespoort 84 KR, Speculatie 139LQ and St Catherine 1257LQ). Landsat 5 remote-sensing images and quantitative and qualitative survey techniques were employed to source the information..

Extensive evidence of atrocities committed against black workers on white-owned farms has consistently been uncovered by progressive organisations working in the rural areas in South Africa. The evidence suggests the need for a thorough and systematic investigation of the nature and extent of violence on the farms, as well as a more systematic exposure of the findings. For the most part, the personality of rural South Africa remains a mystery to urban dwellers. The Black Sash and its rural project, the Transvaal Rural Action Committee (TRAC), approached the Project for the Study of Violence to undertake this research and this report was first presented at the Project's seminar programme at the University of the Witwatersrand. Its findings have provoked strong responses from the farming sector. Kobus Kleyhans, the Deputy Director, General Services of the South African Agricultural Union (SAAU), was quoted in The Star as saying, ‘According to my observations, the situation (on the farms) is quite different. I reject these findings with contempt; they are nothing near the real situation... I will not deny, that some farmers do not treat their workers as they should, but this sort of information is not representative’. (The Star; October 1990) In reply, it should be emphasised that firstly, while this study was conducted only in the South Eastern Transvaal, the case studies in this report are not isolated incidents but were selected out of a large range of similar occurrences in the area. Secondly, rural advice offices in the Western and Northern Transvaal, have reported similar cases of violent abuse of labourers on white owned farms in their areas. Although the specific contours of the communities in these regions have not been investigated, some of the case studies directly corroborate the findings of this report. The timing of this report is opportune as it coincides with President De Klerk’s announcement that the Land Acts of 1913 and 1936 are to be abolished. These Acts have been pivotal in forging and determining the violent and exploitative relations on the land. The announcement is therefore welcomed as a significant step towards creating the conditions for changing the balance of power on the land. At the same time, this report serves as a warning against the belief that the scrapping of the Land Acts will put an end to the varying forms of violence on the farms. Just as repealing these laws will not necessarily ensure equitable redistribution of the land in South Africa, so too do they not necessarily signal a move towards more equitable labour relations on white farms. This report makes this clear in three ways. Firstly, the racist attitudes and convictions of many white farmers is shown to underpin much of the violence on the farms. These attitudes will prevail well after the scrapping of the Acts. A reversal of these attitudes will only take place after a lengthy educative process undertaken by groups such as the local churches, the South African Agricultural Union, the Rural Foundation etc. Secondly, it is the very fear of white farmers and their increasingly vulnerable position, that has contributed to a growing pattern of abusive behaviour against farmworkers. The strength of the opposition of hundreds of white farmers to the scrapping of the Land Acts was demonstrated in their march on the union buildings just after the announcement was made. Thirdly, the networks that have contributed - directly and indirectly - to the violence on the farms, such as the courts and police, are still firmly entrenched in the rural areas. For these reasons, a campaign against against farmworker abuse is more pertinent than ever before. We are calling for several steps to be taken. / Revised Edition

The development of conservation and management programs for an animal population relies on a knowledge of the number of individuals in an area. In order to achieve reliable estimates, precise and accurate techniques for estimating population densities are needed. This study compared the use of direct and indirect methods of estimating kudu (Trage/aphus strepsiceras), bush buck (Trage/aphus scriptus), common duiker (Sy/vicapra grimmia), and blue duiker (Philantamba manticala) densities on Shamwari Game Reserve in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. These species prefer habitats of dense forest and bush for concealment and are therefore not easily counted in open areas. Herein direct observation counts were compared to indirect sampling via pellet group counts (clearance plots, line transects, variable-width transects, and strip transects). Clearance plots were examined every 2 weeks, while all other methods were conducted seasonally, from August 2002 until August 2003. The strip transect method provided the lowest density estimates (animals per hal ranging from 0.001 for bushbuck to 0.025 for common duiker, while direct observations yielded the highest estimates, ranging from 0.804 for bush buck to 4.692 for kudu. Also, a validation of methods was performed against a known population of kudu during which the DISTANCE method yielded the most accurate results, with an estimated density of 0.261 that was within the actual density of 0.246 to 0.282. In addition, the DISTANCE method was compared to helicopter counts ofkudu and its estimates were found to be approximately 2.6 times greater than the helicopter count results. When the assessment of the methods was made, the cost, manpower and effort requirements, coefficient of variation, and performance against a known population for each method were taken into consideration. Overall, the DISTANCE method performed the best with low cost, minimal manpower and effort requirements, and low coefficient of variation. On Shamwari Game Reserve, the DISTANCE method estimated 0.300 kudu, 0.108 bushbuck, 0.387 common duiker, and 0.028 blue duiker per ha, which, when extrapolated to the total number of animals present within subtropical thicket habitat, estimated 1973 kudu, 710 bush buck, 2545 common duiker, and 184 blue duiker.

Thesis (MTech (Tourism and Hospitality Management)) Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2009 / In the Buffalo City Municipality (BCM) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, there is a need to supplement income for farmers and to create employment to assist in the alleviation of poverty. Agritourism has been identified as an opportunity for growth and development as it has the potential to meet those needs. A study was undertaken to evaluate the nature of Agritourism in Buffalo City Municipality. The research was undertaken to investigate the characteristics of farms; demographic information of farmers; details of the type of farming and/or other relevant income-generating activities that are being undertaken; and the resources available. The study also included research into the activities that farmers would like to introduce on to farms; resources required and obstacles preventing farmers from developing Agritourism; and assistance required in developing Agritourism knowledge and skills. Data was collected from farmers in BCM. Non-probability, purposive, snowball sampling was used due to the lack of an adequate database of rural land ownership in BCM although this did not lead to a sample that was representative of the population, it was the most suitable for the study. Thirty-six farmers were visited by fieldworkers who administered structured questionnaires. The data was then analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).