Background: Type I diabetes is a chronic disease that places great demands on the child and family. Parental involvement has been found to be essential for disease outcome. However, fathers’ involvement has been less studied, even though high paternal involvement has been correlated with less disease impact on the family and higher quality of life among adolescents. Aim: The overall aim of the study was to explore and analyze constructions of fathers’ involvement in their child’s everyday life with type 1 diabetes from an ecological and health promotion perspective. Four specific aims were applied: 1) explore and describe discourses in health care guidelines for children with type 1 diabetes in Nordic countries, focusing on parents' positioning (I), 2) analyze how Swedish pediatric diabetes teams perceived and discussed fathers’ involvement in the care of their child with type 1 diabetes, and to discuss how the teams’ attitudes toward the fathers’ involvement developed during a focus group process (II), 3) explore and discuss how fathers involved in caring for their child with type 1 diabetes experience support from their pediatric diabetes team in everyday life with their child (III), and 4) analyze how involved fathers to children with type 1 diabetes understand their involvement in their child’s daily life and to discuss their perceptions from a health promotion perspective (IV). Material and methods: A qualitative and inductive approach was applied. Data were collected and analyzed during 2010-2012. The sample consisted of three pediatric guidelines originating from Norway, Denmark and Sweden (I), three Swedish pediatric diabetes teams (PDTs) (II), and 11 (III) and 16 (IV) fathers of children with type 1 diabetes who scored high involvement on the Parental Responsibility Questionnaire. Data were collected through repeated focus group discussions with the PDTs (II), online focus group discussions (III) and individual interviews (III, IV) with the fathers. Three analysis methods were applied: analysis of discourses (I), Constructivist Grounded Theory (II, III) and content analysis (IV). Findings: The findings illuminated the complex interaction between the pediatric guidelines, the PDTs and the fathers. Fathers highly involved in their child’s daily life experienced different levels of tension between the general recommendations and their personal experiences of living with a child with type 1 diabetes (III). The fathers regarded their involvement in their child’s diabetes care as additional to their general parenting, and a fine balance was identified between a health promotion perspective and a controlling involvement. The common denominator between the highly involved fathers was their use of parental leave (IV). The PDTs initially perceived fathers’ involvement as gendered and balanced on the mother’s agement, but as focus was set on fathers’ engagement the PDTs increased their awareness of this and started to identify and encourage their engagement II). At the macro-level, parents’ voices were diminished in Nordic pediatric diabetes guidelines in favor of an expert discourse (I). Conclusions: Fathers’ involvement concerning a child with type 1diabetes is constructed in a complex way, based on an interaction between the fathers’ perceptions of their additional involvement and the support provided by the PDTs; the PDTs’ perceptions of the fathers’ involvement; and how parents/fathers are constructed in pediatric diabetes guidelines. In order to promote the health and well-being of children with type 1 diabetes, fathers’ involvement needs to be taken into account in the pediatric guidelines as well as in clinical practice.

This study investigated the association between Chinese immigrant mothers' reports of parenting stress and two sources of parenting support: fathers' support and social support. Five independent-samples t-tests were first computed to examine whether there were discrepancies between Chinese immigrant mothers' and fathers' perceptions of fathers' involvement across five domains of fathers' involvement in early child care: (1) fathers' warmth and attunement; (2) control and process responsibility; (3) emotional involvement; (4) indirect care; and (5) positive engagement. Then regression analyses were conducted to understand how and to what extent the five domains of father involvement reported by mothers and mothers' perceived social support influenced Chinese immigrant mothers' parenting stress. In addition, an indirect effects of mothers' self-efficacy on the relation between fathers' involvement and mothers' parenting stress was also tested. The results showed that Chinese mothers reported significantly greater level of fathers' emotional involvement than the same type of involvement reported by Chinese immigrant fathers. This study also found that fathers' emotional involvement reported by Chinese immigrant mothers was a significant predictor of Chinese immigrant mothers' parenting stress. However, mothers' perceived social support was a stronger predictor, accounting for more variance in their parenting stress than their reports of fathers' involvement across all the five dimensions. Mothers' self-efficacy did not account for the association between Chinese immigrant mothers' reports of fathers' involvement across five dimensions and mothers' parenting stress.

Based on the theoretical perspectives of role strain theory and the spillover model, we examined the association between job demands and employed fathers’ involvement of single-income and dual-income families in South Korea (Korea hereafter). In addition, we examined the mediating role of work to family conflict in the above association. Data were collected from 201 employed fathers with at least one preschool child. We conducted multiple group structural equation modeling analysis using employed fathers in single-income family group (n = 100) and dual-income family group (n = 101). The results showed that job demands were negatively associated with fathers’ involvement, and this association was mediated by work to family conflict among Korean fathers in both single- and dual-income family groups. Findings indicate that regardless of wives’ employment status, job demands are related to fathers’ involvement, and this association is mediated by work to family conflict. Consequently, we suggest that alleviating employed fathers’ job demands and work to family conflict are key factors increasing fathers’ involvement. Therefore, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers are required to improve employed fathers’ work environments in order to support their familial well-being. Future research may consider a more representative sample with various sources of data collection.

Based on the theoretical perspectives of role strain theory and the spillover model, we examined the association between job demands and employed fathers’ involvement of single-income and dual-income families in South Korea (Korea hereafter). In addition, we examined the mediating role of work to family conflict in the above association. Data were collected from 201 employed fathers with at least one preschool child. We conducted multiple group structural equation modeling analysis using employed fathers in single-income family group (n = 100) and dual-income family group (n = 101). The results showed that job demands were negatively associated with fathers’ involvement, and this association was mediated by work to family conflict among Korean fathers in both single- and dual-income family groups. Findings indicate that regardless of wives’ employment status, job demands are related to fathers’ involvement, and this association is mediated by work to family conflict. Consequently, we suggest that alleviating employed fathers’ job demands and work to family conflict are key factors increasing fathers’ involvement. Therefore, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers are required to improve employed fathers’ work environments in order to support their familial well-being. Future research may consider a more representative sample with various sources of data collection.

Σκοπός της εργασίας αυτής ήταν η μελέτη της ενασχόλησης των πατέρων παιδιών με ειδικές ανάγκες με τη φροντίδα των παιδιών τους. Ιδιαίτερα μελετήθηκαν οι εξής παράγοντες που σύμφωνα με το θεωρητικό μοντέλο του Belsky (1984) φαίνεται ότι επηρεάζουν την ενασχόληση τους: ο τύπος της αναπηρίας, το φύλο και το ταμπεραμέντο του παιδιού, οι αντιλήψεις των πατέρων για τον πατρικό ρόλο, το επίπεδο του άγχους τους, η συζυγική τους ικανοποίηση και η υποστήριξη που λαμβάνουν από το οικογενειακό και κοινωνικό τους περιβάλλον. Για τις ανάγκες της έρευνας χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ποσοτικές μέθοδοι σε ένα δείγμα 172 πατέρων παιδιών προσχολικής ηλικίας εκ των οποίων οι 78 είχαν παιδιά με ειδικές ανάγκες και οι υπόλοιποι 94 πατέρες αποτέλεσαν την ομάδα ελέγχου. Οι πατέρες συμπλήρωσαν ερωτηματολόγια αναφορικά με την ενασχόληση τους με τη φροντίδα του παιδιού τους, το ταμπεραμέντο του παιδιού τους, τις αντιλήψεις τους για τον πατρικό ρόλο, το άγχος που βιώνουν σε σχέση με το παιδί τους, την ικανοποίηση που έχουν από τη συζυγική τους σχέση και την οικογενειακή και κοινωνική υποστήριξη που λαμβάνουν. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι οι πατέρες παιδιών με ειδικές ανάγκες δεν παρουσιάζουν σημαντικές διαφορές από τους πατέρες «τυπικών» παιδιών στο επίπεδο της συνολικής ενασχόλησης με τα παιδιά τους. Ακόμα, τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι οι παράγοντες που επιδρούν άμεσα στην ενασχόληση των πατέρων με τα παιδιά τους είναι οι αντιλήψεις των πατέρων για τον πατρικό ρόλο και η συζυγική ικανοποίηση. Αντίθετα, ο τύπος της αναπηρίας - αυτισμός, νοητική καθυστέρηση, κώφωση - το φύλο και ταμπεραμέντο του παιδιού επηρεάζουν ελάχιστα την πατρική ενασχόληση. Το άγχος των πατέρων δε φαίνεται να επιδρά άμεσα στην ενασχόλησή τους με τα παιδιά τους. Παρόλα αυτά, οι πατέρες παιδιών με ειδικές ανάγκες έχουν περισσότερο άγχος σε σύγκριση με αυτό των πατέρων «τυπικών» παιδιών ενώ ρυθμιστές του άγχους τους είναι η σχέση τους με τη σύντροφό τους και η υποστήριξη που έχουν από το κοινωνικό τους περιβάλλον. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα είναι βοηθητικά για την καλύτερη κατανόηση των παραγόντων που ενισχύουν την ενασχόληση των πατέρων και για το σχεδιασμό και την υλοποίηση προγραμμάτων στήριξης για τους ίδιους και τις οικογένειες τους. / The aim of this study was to examine fathers’ involvement with their children with special needs. The factors that, according to Belsky’s model of parenting, influence fathers’ involvement were examined: the disability type, the gender and the temperament of child, fathers’ beliefs concerning the parental role, the parental stress, the satisfaction fathers receive from their marital relationship and the social support they receive. For the research needs quantitative methods were used in a sample of 172 fathers of preschool-age children from whom the 78 had children with special needs and the 94 were the control group. Fathers completed questionnaires measuring their child-care involvement, their child’s temperament, their beliefs concerning the parental role, their parental stress, their marital satisfaction and the social support they receive. Results revealed no difference in the overall level of childcare involvement between fathers of children with special needs and fathers of “typical” children. Additionally, it was found that the factors that influence directly fathers’ involvement are fathers’ beliefs concerning the parental role as well as their marital satisfaction. By contrast, the disability type – autism, mental retardation and deafness – the gender and the temperament of children have a minor affect in paternal involvement. Paternal stress does not influence directly fathers’ involvement with their children. Moreover, fathers of children with special needs experience more stress than fathers of “typical” children while moderators of stress are their relationship with their spouse and the support they receive from environment. The results are useful for the better understanding of the factors that enhance fathers’ involvement and for the design and the implementation of support programs for them and their families.