Initial published work suggested that Fe isotope fractionations recorded in sediments were a product of biological activity. Experiments and measurements of natural samples now indicate that Fe isotope fractionation can be the product of both biological and inorganic processes. Sedimentary iron sulphides provide unique information about the evolution of early life which developed under anoxic conditions. It is in these sedimentary Fe-S species and in particular in Archean and Proterozoic pyrites that the largest Fe isotope variations (up to a range of ~5‰ for δ56/54Fe) have been measured. Most research has focussed on potential processes responsible for the formation of a 56Fe depleted Fe(II) pool from which iron sulphides would precipitate without additional fractionation, recording the light Fe isotope composition of the pool. Much less attention has been given to the possibility that the iron sulphide forming mechanisms themselves could produce significant fractionations. The Fe-S system constitutes a diverse group of stable and metastable phases, the ultimate Fe sequestrating phase being pyrite. The aim of this study was to examine experimentally where Fe isotope fractionations occur during the abiotic formation of iron sulphides in order to assess whether or not the measured Fe isotope signatures in natural pyrite could be explained by chemical mechanisms only. Both analytical and experimental protocols were developed in order to determine the partition of Fe isotopes for each step towards diagenetic pyrite formation. 56/54Fe and 57/54Fe ratios were measured on an IsoProbe-P Micromass MC-ICP-MS, and all experiments were performed under oxygen-free N2 atmosphere. Supporting previously published data, the results indicate that the precipitation of the nanoparticulate iron(II) monosulphide mackinawite (FeSm) kinetically fractionates lighter isotopes with initial fractionations of Δ56FeFe(II)aq-FeS = 1.17 ± 0.16 ‰ at 25°C and Δ56FeFe(II)aq-FeS = 0.98 ± 0.16 ‰ at 2°C. The rate of isotopic exchange between Fe(II)aq and FeSm decreases as FeSm nanoparticles grow. Fe isotope exchange kinetics are consistent with i) FeSm nanoparticles that have a core–shell structure, in which case Fe isotope mobility is restricted to exchange between the surface shell and the solution and ii) a nanoparticle growth via an aggregation– growth mechanism. Because of the structure of FeSm nanoparticles, the approach to isotopic equilibrium is kinetically restricted at low temperatures. The equilibrium Fe isotope fractionation between Fe2+ aq and FeSm was determined using the three isotope method and is Δ56FeFe(II)-FeS = -0.33 ± 0.12 ‰ at 25°C and Δ56FeFe(II)-FeS = -0.52 ± 0.16 ‰ at 2°C. This suggests that at equilibrium, FeSm incorporates heavier isotopes with respect to Fe2+ aq, and the isotopic composition of most naturally occurring FeSm does not represent equilibrium. During pyrite formation, pyrite incorporates kinetically lighter isotopes with a fractionation Δ56FeFeS-pyrite ~ 2.2 ‰. Because pyrite is sparingly soluble in sedimentary environments, isotope exchange is prevented and pyrite does not equilibrate with its Fe(II) source. Combined fractionation factors between Fe2+ aq, mackinawite (FeSm) and pyrite permit the generation of pyrite with Fe isotope signatures that encapsulate the full range of sedimentary δ56Fepyrite recorded in both Archean and modern sediments. Archean Fe isotope excursions reflect various degrees of pyritisation, extent of Fe(II)aq utilisation, and variations in source composition rather than microbial dissimilatory Fe(III) reduction only. Our results show that sedimentary pyrite is not a passive recorder of the Fe isotope composition of the reactive Fe(II) reservoir forming pyrite. It is the formation process itself that influences pyrite Fe isotope signatures with consequent implications for the interpretation of sedimentary pyrite Fe isotope compositions throughout geological time.

Iron (Fe) exerts strong control over environmental biogeochemistry. As the fourth most abundant element, Fe is present in nearly all earth environments, where it plays important roles in governing the transformation and movement of organic and inorganic constituents, and in microbial respiration. Consequently, the body of work on Fe biogeochemistry is vast. This study is specifically concerned with the dynamic changes in the oxidation state of Fe (i.e., redox cycling) and their impact on the inorganic, organic and microbial components in soil. I constructed a special apparatus to fluctuate redox potential on soil slurries while concurrently sampling a wide range of biogeochemical variables (pH, redox potential, major and trace elements, CO2 release, DNA community composition charges, etc.). Previous research has documented redox fluctuations along a climate gradient in Hawaii and a primary goal of this dissertation was to reconstruct these redox fluctuations, subjected to experimental constraints afforded by a laboratory setting, with minimal disruption to the biogeochemical processes controlling Fe redox cycling. By recasting the spatial and temporal characteristics of in situ Fe redox cycling in the laboratory, I was able to form testable hypotheses regarding the importance of Fe redox oscillations to soil mineral transformations, colloid composition/dynamics and microbial community structure. A second goal of this dissertation was to explore the utility of Fe isotopic composition for providing information on soil weathering processes along age and climate gradients at the field scale in Hawaii. This portion of the study tested emerging theories of Fe isotope fractionation during mineral dissolution using well-characterized sequences in soil weathering intensity.The principal findings of the laboratory redox fluctuation experiments are that Fe redox oscillations: (1) trigger an increase in the crystallinity of Fe-oxides; (2) mobilize colloids containing refractory elements (e.g., Zr, Nb, U, etc.); (3) reveal redox sensitive rare earth element (REE) anomalies in the aqueous phase; and (4) induce changes in the microbial community favoring microbes capable of growth under both oxic and anoxic conditions. The principal finding of the Fe isotope measurements is that isotopic composition is directly related to weathering intensity in the field, consistent with theoretical predictions.

Human exposure to arsenic in groundwater is a global concern, and arsenic mobility in groundwater is often controlled by Fe mineral dissolution and precipitation. Additionally, Fe(II)-catalyzed recrystallization of Fe oxides has been shown to enable trace element release from and incorporation into Fe oxides. However, the effect of As(V) on the Fe(II)-catalyzed recrystallization of Fe oxides such as goethite, magnetite, and ferrihydrite remains unclear. Here, we measured the extent of Fe atom exchange between aqueous Fe(II) and magnetite, goethite, or ferrihydrite in the presence of As(V) by reacting isotopically "normal" Fe oxides with 57Fe-enriched aqueous Fe(II). At lower levels of adsorption (≤13.3 μM), As(V) had little influence on the rate or extent of Fe(II)-catalyzed Fe atom exchange in goethite or magnetite. However, Fe atom exchange was increasingly inhibited as As(V) concentration increased above 100 μM. Additionally, adsorbed As(V) may be incorporated into magnetite over time in the presence and absence of added aqueous Fe(II) as indicated by X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and chemical extraction data, with more rapid incorporation in the absence of added Fe(II). XAS and chemical extraction data are also consistent with the incorporation of As(V) during goethite and magnetite precipitation. Additionally, atom exchange data indicated that low levels of As(V) coprecipitation (As:Fe = 0.0005-0.0155) had little influence on the rate or extent of Fe(II)-catalyzed Fe atom exchange in goethite or magnetite. Atom exchange data indicated that ferrihydrite likely transforms via a dissolution-reprecipitation mechanism both to lepidocrocite at 0.2 mM Fe(II) and to magnetite at 5 mM Fe(II). The presence of 206 μM As(V) slowed the transformation of ferrihydrite to more crystalline iron minerals and slowed the rate of atom exchange between aqueous Fe(II) and ferrihydrite. However, the degree of atom exchange did not directly correlate with the amount of ferrihydrite transformed. In summary, Fe oxide recrystallization processes may affect As(V) uptake and release in the environment, and As(V) may inhibit Fe(II)-catalyzed Fe oxide recrystallization.