Movement is essential to human life because it provides us with the freedom of mobility and the power to affect our surroundings. Moreover, movements are vital to communication: from hand and finger movements when writing, mouth and throat movements when speaking, to painting, dancing, and other forms of artistic self expression. As people grow and experience new environments, adaptively maintaining the accuracy of movements is a critical function of the motor system. In this dissertation, I explore the key mechanisms that underlie the adaptability of simple visually guided reaching movements. I specifically focus on two key facets of this adaptability: how motor learning rate can be predicted by motor variability and how motor learning affects the mechanisms which underlie movement planning. Inspired by reinforcement learning, I hypothesized that greater amounts of motor variability aligned with a task will produce more effective exploration, leading to faster learning rates. I discovered that this relationship predicts person-to-person and task-to-task differences in learning rate for both reward-based and error-based learning tasks. Moreover, I found that the motor system actively and enduringly reshapes motor output variability, aligning it with a task to improve learning. These results indicate that the structure of motor variability is an activelyregulated, critical feature of the motor system which plays a fundamental role in determining motor learning ability. Combining prominent theories in motor control, I created a model which describes the planning of visually guided reaching movements. This model computes a weighted average of two independent feature-based motor plans: one based on the goal location of a movement, and the other based on an intended movement vector. Employing this model to characterize the generalization of adaptation to movements and movement sequences, I find that both features, movement vector and goal location, contribute significantly to movement planning, and that each feature is remapped by motor adaptation. My results show that multiple features contribute to the planning of both point-to-point and sequential reaching movements. Moreover, a computational model which is based on the remapping of multiple features accurately predicts how visuomotor adaptation affects the planning of movement sequences. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

Understanding the neural processes underlying motor learning in humans is important to facilitate the acquisition of new motor skills and to aid the relearning of skills lost after neurologic injury. Although it is known that the learning of a new movement is guided by the error feedback received after each repeated attempt to produce the movement, how the central nervous system (CNS) processes individual errors and how it modulates its learning rate in response to the history of errors experienced are issues that remain to be elucidated. To address these issues we studied the generalization of learning and learning decay – the transfer of what has been learned, or unlearned, in a particular movement condition to new movement conditions. Generalization offers a window into the process of error credit assignment during motor learning, since it allows us to measure which actions benefit the most in terms of learning after experiencing an error. We found that the distributions that describe generalization after learning are unimodal and biased towards the motion directions experienced during training, a finding that suggests that the credit for the learning experienced after a particular trial is assigned to the actual motion (motion-referenced learning) and not to the planned motion (plan-referenced learning) as it had previously been assumed in the motor learning literature. In addition, after training the same action along multiple directions, we found that the pattern of learning decay has two distinct components: one that is time-dependent and affects all trained directions, and one that is trial-dependent and affects mostly the direction where decay was induced, generalizing narrowly with a unimodal pattern similar to the one observed for learning generalization. We finally studied the effect that the consistency of the error perturbations in the training environment has on the learning rate adopted by the CNS. We found that learning rate increases when the perturbations experienced in training are consistent, and decreases when these perturbations are inconsistent. Besides increasing our understanding of the mechanisms underlying motor learning, the findings described in the present dissertation will enable the principled design of skill training and rehabilitation protocols that accelerate learning. / Engineering and Applied Sciences

Human sensorimotor control is remarkably adept at utilising contextual information to learn and recall systematic sensorimotor transformations. Here, we investigate the motor representations that underlie such learning, and examine how motor memories acquired based on different contextual information interact. Using a novel three-dimensional robotic manipulandum, the 3BOT, we examined the spatial transfer of learning across various movement directions in a 3D environment, while human subjects performed reaching movements under velocity-dependent force field. The obtained pattern of generalisation suggested that the representation of dynamic learning was most likely defined in a target-based, rather than an extrinsic, coordinate system. We further examined how motor memories interact when subjects adapt to force fields applied in orthogonal dimensions. We found that, unlike opposing fields, learning two spatially orthogonal force fields led to the formation of separate motor memories, which neither interfered with nor facilitated each other. Moreover, we demonstrated a novel, more general aspect of the spontaneous recovery phenomenon using a two-dimensional force field task: when subjects learned two orthogonal force fields consecutively, in the following phase of clamped error feedback, the expression of adaptation spontaneously rotated from the direction of the second force field, towards the direction of the first force field. Finally, we examined the interaction of sensorimotor memories formed based on separate contextual information. Subjects performed reciprocating reaching and object manipulation tasks under two alternating contexts (movement directions), while we manipulated the dynamics of the task in each context separately. The results suggested that separate motor memories were formed for the dynamics of the task in different contexts, and that these motor memories interacted by sharing error signals to enhance learning. Importantly, the extent of interaction was not fixed between the context-dependent motor memories, but adaptively changed according to the task dynamics to potentially improve overall performance. Together, our experimental and theoretical results add to the understanding of mechanisms that underlie sensorimotor learning, and the way these mechanisms interact under various tasks and different dynamics.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Uno de los mayores retos en los que incurre la producción agrícola hoy en día reside en alimentar de forma sostenible a una población creciente a la vez que concentra sus esfuerzos en hacerlo con el menor impacto ecológico posible. El actual sistema agroalimentario no solo impacta negativamente desde la perspectiva de la emisión de gases invernadero, sino que también favorece otros ámbitos como la degradación de los productos naturales, la pérdida de la biodiversidad o los cambios en el uso del suelo. La evidencia de este proceso de deterioro a escala mundial requiere de la puesta en marcha de planes de acción basados tanto en la mitigación del cambio climático (mediante la reducción de los gases de efecto invernadero) como en la adaptación al mismo mediante buenas prácticas agrícolas que consigan reducir la vulnerabilidad de los cultivos. Los objetivos de esta tesis se enmarcan en las vías de actuación definidas como prioritarias por la Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas "Transformar nuestro mundo: la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible". Más concretamente, en la mejora de la sostenibilidad del cultivo del almendro (Prunus dulcis Miller) prestando especial atención a la respuesta del sistema radical y su capacidad para mejorar la adaptación del cultivo a los nuevos escenarios derivados del proceso de cambio climático. En esta tesis se caracterizaron química y morfométricamente tres patrones de almendro. Se observaron diferencias significativas tanto en los sistemas radiculares como vegetativos de los mismos siendo el patrón GN el más vigoroso, el GF 677 el que presentó mayor número de raíces principales y el RP-R secundarias. Además, GN destacó por presentar mayor poder antioxidante y mayor contenido en fenoles, pudiendo estas propiedades influir en los mecanismos de defensa de la planta al inducir resistencia frente a determinados estreses. Los patrones se sometieron a diferentes medios de cultivo mediante el uso de dos sustratos. Las plantas cultivadas bajo fibra de coco presentaron un aumento masivo de raíces absorbentes y un engrosamiento del tronco mientras que las plantas cultivadas en la mezcla de turba y arena presentaron mayor longitud del sistema radical. Se estudió la respuesta de los patrones frente al aporte de bioestimulantes de raíz en vistas a contribuir a un manejo más racional y sostenible del cultivo. La fertilización mediante bioestimulantes tuvo un impacto significativo en el desarrollo de las plantas tanto a nivel aéreo como radicular y consiguió acortar los plazos de vivero, logrando plantas con mejor o más rápida capacidad de adaptación al campo. A grandes rasgos los mejores resultados se obtuvieron con el bioestimulante compuesto por materia orgánica, aminoácidos y extractos de algas. Adicionalmente y en respuesta a los retos medioambientales actuales se analizaron las propiedades energéticas del almendro y el posible uso de sus residuos como fuente de energía renovable atendiendo a diferentes factores que podrían influir sus propiedades energéticas como son la variedad, el patrón o el tipo de fertilización. Observamos que las variables que más influyeron en el poder calorífico del material fueron la variedad, el patrón y la interacción entre ambos. Siendo el cultivar Marcona y el patrón GF 305 los que presentaron mejores propiedades energéticas. / [CA] Un dels majors reptes en els quals incorre la producció agrícola hui dia resideix a alimentar de manera sostenible a una població creixent alhora que concentra els seus esforços a fer-ho amb el menor impacte ecològic possible. L'actual sistema agroalimentari no sols impacta negativament des de la perspectiva de l'emissió de gasos amb efecte d'hivernacle, sinó que també afavoreix altres àmbits com la degradació dels productes naturals, la pèrdua de la biodiversitat o els canvis en l'ús del sòl. L'evidència d'aquest procés de deterioració a escala mundial requereix de la posada en marxa de plans d'acció basats tant en la mitigació del canvi climàtic (mitjançant la reducció dels gasos d'efecte d'hivernacle) com en l'adaptació al mateix mitjançant bones pràctiques agrícoles que aconseguisquen reduir la vulnerabilitat dels cultius. Els objectius d'aquesta tesi s'emmarquen en les vies d'actuació definides com a prioritàries per l'Assemblea General de les Nacions Unides "Transformar el nostre món: l'Agenda 2030 per al Desenvolupament Sostenible". Més concretament, en la millora de la sostenibilitat del cultiu de l'ametler (Prunus dulcis Miller) prestant especial atenció a la resposta del sistema radical i la seua capacitat per a millorar l'adaptació del cultiu als nous escenaris derivats del procés de canvi climàtic. En aquesta tesi es van caracteritzar química i morfométricament tres patrons d'ametler. Es van observar diferències significatives tant en els sistemes radiculars com vegetatius dels mateixos sent el patró GN el més vigorós, el GF 677 el que va presentar major nombre d'arrels principals i el RP-R secundàries. A més, GN va destacar per presentar major poder antioxidant i major contingut en fenols, podent aquestes propietats influir en els mecanismes de defensa de la planta en induir resistència enfront de determinats estressos. Els patrons es van sotmetre a diferents mitjans de cultiu mitjançant l'ús de dos substrats. Les plantes cultivades sota fibra de coco van presentar un augment massiu d'arrels absorbents i un engruiximent del tronc mentre que les plantes cultivades en la mescla de torba i arena van presentar major longitud del sistema radical. Es va estudiar la resposta dels patrons enfront de l'aportació de bioestimulants d'arrel en vistes a contribuir a un maneig més racional i sostenible del cultiu. La fertilització mitjançant bioestimulants va tindre un impacte significatiu en el desenvolupament de les plantes tant a nivell aeri com radicular i va aconseguir acurtar els terminis de viver, aconseguint plantes amb millor o més ràpida capacitat d'adaptació al camp. A grans trets els millors resultats es van obtindre amb el bioestimulant compost per matèria orgànica, aminoàcids i extractes d'algues. Addicionalment i en resposta als reptes mediambientals actuals es van analitzar les propietats energètiques de l'ametler i el possible ús dels seus residus com a font d'energia renovable atenent a diferents factors que podrien influir en les seues propietats energètiques com són la varietat, el patró o el tipus de fertilització. Observem que les variables que més van influir en el poder calorífic del material van ser la varietat, el patró i la interacció entre tots dos. Sent el cultivar Marcona i el patró GF 305 els que van presentar millors propietats energètiques. / [EN] One of the greatest challenges that agricultural production is facing today lies in sustainably feeding a growing population while concentrating on doing so with the least possible ecological impact. The current agri-food system not only has a negative impact from the perspective of greenhouse gas emissions, but also favors other areas such as the degradation of natural products, the loss of biodiversity or the changes in land use. The evidence of this process of deterioration on a global scale requires the implementation of action plans based on both climate change mitigation (by reducing greenhouse gases) and climate adaptation through good agricultural practices that manage to reduce the vulnerability of crops. The objectives of this thesis are framed in the courses of action defined as priorities by the General Assembly of the United Nations "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development". More specifically, in improving the sustainability of almond (Prunus dulcis Miller) cultivation, paying special attention to the response of the root system and its ability to improve the adaptation of the crop to the new scenarios derived from the process of climate change. In this thesis, three almond rootstocks were chemically and morphometrically characterized. Significant differences were observed both in their root and vegetative systems, with the GN rootstock being the most vigorous, the GF 677 the one with the highest number of main roots, and the RP-R the one showing more secondary roots. In addition, GN stood out for presenting greater antioxidant power and higher phenol content, these properties being able to influence the plant's defense mechanisms by inducing resistance to certain stresses. The rootstocks were subjected to different culture media by using two substrates. The plants grown under coconut fiber showed a massive increase in absorbent roots and a thickening of the trunk, while the plants grown in the mixture of peat and sand showed greater length of the root system. The response of rootstocks to the contribution of root biostimulants was studied to contribute to a more rational and sustainable management of the crop. Fertilization using biostimulants had a significant impact on the development of plants both at aerial and root levels and managed to shorten nursery periods, achieving plants with a better or faster capacity to adapt to the field. Broadly, the best results were obtained with the biostimulant composed of organic matter, amino acids and algae extracts. Additionally, and in response to current environmental challenges, the energy properties of the almond tree and the possible use of its residues as a source of renewable energy were analyzed considering different factors that could influence its energy properties, such as the variety, rootstock, or type of fertilization. We observed that the variables that most influenced the calorific power of the material were the variety, the rootstock and the interaction between both. The Marcona variety and the GF 305 rootstock were the ones that presented the best energy properties. / This work was funded by Project 20170734. Development of methods of quantification of riparian vegetation biomass for the management of channels of the Comunitat Valencianaect . Dirección General de Universidades. Generalitat Valenciana (Spain). / Mondragón Valero, A. (2022). Caracterización de materiales de almendro y mejora del desarrollo de planta joven [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/184486 / TESIS / Compendio