The effect of attention to oral reading errors has received little specific examination by researchers in applied behaviour analysis. Some data suggest attending to such errors can have inappropriate effects on learning. A conceptual framework was developed to examine the effects of error attention on the acquisition of proficient reading responses. Analyses of reading behaviour employed concepts and data from 'structural' accounts of reading. These concepts provided details of the components of response systems. Acquisition of proficient reading was seen to involve trends towards accurate integrated responding which becomes self controlled. Error attention was conceptualised as having motivational and informational properties which could directly affect acquisition trends. The first experiment (Chapter Three) demonstrated that under appropriate conditions oral reading behaviour was facilitated by error attention. Eleven year old readers in a Learning Disabilities classroom were measured in their usual reading setting. Two readers received extra tutoring with error attention procedures. A further two readers acted as a contrast for the effects of increased opportunities to respond. These readers received extra practice tutoring with minimum levels of praise. A third subject received no extra tutoring during the course of the experiment. Results indicated that both practice and error attention produced substantial increases in accuracy and correct rates. Accuracy levels were higher for error attention subjects suggesting error attention can have important learning outcomes. Additionally, predictions concerning the error attention dimensions of modeling and prompting were tested. Prompts were found to be more effective with the more proficient reader while models were more effective with the less proficient reader. The second experiment (Chapter Four) examined specific predictions about timing of error attention. Six, 6 year old normal readers received daily sessions of either delayed or immediate attention to errors. Every second day the subjects also read a text on which they were not tutored. Results showed that delayed attention increased the percent of errors self corrected for five subjects in both the tutored and non tutored texts. Increases in self corrections were consistently associated with increased accuracy. The data supported both the predictions and the proposed model of self correction behaviour as having a tutorial or self instruction function. Both experiments were discussed in terms of the functions of error attention in facilitating acquisition of proficient reading. Methodological issues in the behaviour analysis of oral reading were also discussed and implications from the studies for instruction in learning to read are drawn. The usefulness of concepts from 'structural' accounts of reading for a predictive 'functional' account of error attention is examined in a concluding section.

The effect of attention to oral reading errors has received little specific examination by researchers in applied behaviour analysis. Some data suggest attending to such errors can have inappropriate effects on learning. A conceptual framework was developed to examine the effects of error attention on the acquisition of proficient reading responses. Analyses of reading behaviour employed concepts and data from 'structural' accounts of reading. These concepts provided details of the components of response systems. Acquisition of proficient reading was seen to involve trends towards accurate integrated responding which becomes self controlled. Error attention was conceptualised as having motivational and informational properties which could directly affect acquisition trends. The first experiment (Chapter Three) demonstrated that under appropriate conditions oral reading behaviour was facilitated by error attention. Eleven year old readers in a Learning Disabilities classroom were measured in their usual reading setting. Two readers received extra tutoring with error attention procedures. A further two readers acted as a contrast for the effects of increased opportunities to respond. These readers received extra practice tutoring with minimum levels of praise. A third subject received no extra tutoring during the course of the experiment. Results indicated that both practice and error attention produced substantial increases in accuracy and correct rates. Accuracy levels were higher for error attention subjects suggesting error attention can have important learning outcomes. Additionally, predictions concerning the error attention dimensions of modeling and prompting were tested. Prompts were found to be more effective with the more proficient reader while models were more effective with the less proficient reader. The second experiment (Chapter Four) examined specific predictions about timing of error attention. Six, 6 year old normal readers received daily sessions of either delayed or immediate attention to errors. Every second day the subjects also read a text on which they were not tutored. Results showed that delayed attention increased the percent of errors self corrected for five subjects in both the tutored and non tutored texts. Increases in self corrections were consistently associated with increased accuracy. The data supported both the predictions and the proposed model of self correction behaviour as having a tutorial or self instruction function. Both experiments were discussed in terms of the functions of error attention in facilitating acquisition of proficient reading. Methodological issues in the behaviour analysis of oral reading were also discussed and implications from the studies for instruction in learning to read are drawn. The usefulness of concepts from 'structural' accounts of reading for a predictive 'functional' account of error attention is examined in a concluding section.

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This thesis examines the role of primary school principals as they undertake their role as educational leaders. Part One summarises theories about leadership and places principals' educational leadership in context. Leadership is defined as a social process whereby principals blend biography and context to reconcile positivist, systemic requirements and recommendations with appropriate localised, and individualised, expectations and aspirations. Part Two outlines an ethnographic methodology that justifies a process to gather and analyse data on the work of three principal subjects. This material is presented in cameo form and supported by questionnaire data from a further group of principal colleagues. Principals' leadership is identified as the interpretation of expectations and resources that results in particular actions. This interpretation is sourced in both context and personal biography. Part Three consists of data analysis and findings. The influence and interplay of context and personal biography are outlined. Conclusions are drawn as to the differences between leadership and management practices, and specific leadership activities performed by principals are identified. This leads to a clarification of leadership as a process of control (as opposed to power) that defines, rather than accommodates, the rules of realisation as to appropriate action. Recommendations are made regarding further study into the issues of personal identity, leadership style and the urgent need for principal pre-service and in-service professional development. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

The improvement of teaching is now recognised to be a key to the sustained improvement of student achievement. Teacher appraisal, a central element of performance management, is intended to improve the quality of teaching (and therefore learning). This thesis examines whether teacher appraisal is achieving this purpose, through three empirical studies. This thesis begins with a discussion of the context of teacher appraisal in relation to education reform of the last two decades. A normative model of teacher appraisal, one that focuses on data-based inquiry into student learning, is outlined, and the emerging education context in relation to that model is examined. Three studies, which explored schools' appraisal documents, appraisal discussions and teachers' appraisal goals, are presented. The first study, a document analysis, investigated the emphasis on student learning in the statements of purpose in 17 primary schools' appraisal policies, and the emphasis on student learning in the performance indicators developed to assess teachers against the professional standards. Results showed that while improved student learning was an intended purpose of schools' appraisal policies, the indicators that were used to evaluate teachers seldom focused directly on student learning.The second study examined whether data-based inquiry into student learning occurs in appraisal discussions, and the reasons for the level of reported inquiry. Eleven practitioners (four appraisers and seven appraisees from three schools) were interviewed about their most recent appraisal discussion to investigate whether student learning was a focus of the appraisal discussions and whether student achievement data were referred to in those discussions. Findings showed that appraisal discussions typically focused on teacher practices without exploring connections between those practices and the impact they have on student learning.Only one of the eleven teachers described a discussion that included talk specifically about student learning. Furthermore, there were no reports of reference to student learning data in appraisal discussions. There was, however, a particularly positive response to the suggestion that appraisal should, and could, focus on student learning and on data relating to this learning. This study also highlighted the considerable influence of appraisal goals in determining the content and scope of appraisals. In the third study, 68 teachers from eight schools responded to a questionnaire about their appraisal goals to establish the extent to which teachers' appraisal goals focus on data-based inquiry into student learning. Less than five per cent of goals were found to refer to student outcomes. The vast majority focused on teacher processes and behaviours. Goals also tended to be vague, rather than specific, and were not explicitly challenging. Findings across the studies suggest that only limited attention is given, in critical elements of teacher appraisal, to student learning. The final chapter of the thesis explores two key strategies for closing the gap between current appraisal practices and the 'appraisal for learning' approach argued for here - an approach that focuses on teacher learning about student learning and that is based on evidence. The first strategy involves alignment within appraisal elements, and to initiatives beyond appraisal. The second strategy is capacity building to ensure that personal, interpersonal and organisational capacities necessary for 'appraisal for learning' are developed. This research shows how teacher appraisal policy and practice has been a missed opportunity to improve teaching effectiveness and how it could be reshaped in ways that maximise student learning.

The immense potential of language, for learning, building relationships, as the embodiment of culture, for an understanding of the world and for expressing 'self', is the underlying theme of this thesis. One less apparent aspect of the language of children is their private speech. In this thesis the research questions focus on whether children from diverse language backgrounds attending English-speaking kindergartens use private speech. Further, if so, what is the context, who is present when it is used and is there a response from the person or people? These questions are primarily addressed through observations of eight children as well as recordings of their private speech. An understanding of the context is supported through interviews with the parents and teachers in the kindergartens. The expectations for this research were largely based on the work of Vygotsky, and adapted to the natural, 'free play' environments of the kindergartens. It was expected that children from diverse language backgrounds in English medium kindergartens would use private speech in their own language. While the children did use private speech (unlike the results from Vygotsky's research) they talked to themselves in English using the language that they had acquired from the community, from the media, from their experiences at kindergarten and in some cases from their families. Based on Krafft & Berk's categories of private speech, a significant focus of this research is the categories of private speech that were used by individual children. These findings pose interesting insight into the experiences of the children. This research has shown the child's remarkable ability to tune into the language and culture of context and to do so not only in relation to the socio-cultural context but also through thinking and acting. This study has also provided insight into the early childhood environments and the experiences of the teachers. As the first known research into private speech/self-talk in early childhood in Aotearoa New Zealand it can serve as a spring-board for further research to enhance our understanding of the child's thinking and learning through private speech.

The outcome of demographics which point to a rapid increase in the number of older adults in the population has been widely debated in the literature. However, it has been examined primarily from the perspective of an unrealistically optimistic or unduly pessimistic view of the future, with few attempts to provide other alternatives. This thesis is structured in three sections. The first backgrounds the context of the research question, the relevant literature, the prospect of gender bias in that literature and the historical development of government policy towards ageing. The second section presents a theoretical perspective for social change, examines the development of social movements and puts a case for a new social movement arising out of the increasing number of older adults and supporting educative processes. The third section reports on empirical research based on interviews in Australia and New Zealand with leaders of organisations involved with older adults and focuses on drawing conclusions from the research in relation to the research question. The theory proposed in this thesis is based on the premise that an opportune time in history exists for older adults to contribute to social and political change. However, for senior members of society to undertake this role will require education in some form, to act as an agency or catalyst to initiate an organised social movement. Findings of this research support the view that the majority of older adults remain fit and healthy and do not conform to the medicalisation approach to ageing on which government policy and, to a large extent, public attitudes, have been formed. While there would be problems of organisation in the formation of a new social movement there are no insurmountable obstacles to overcome. The greatest difficulty would seem to lie in overcoming inertia, sectional interests, generating the leadership and developing innovative and imaginative educative processes. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

This thesis explores reasons for New Zealand’s problematic tail of literacy underachievement and suggests one way to address the problem, is for schools to operate as learning organizations. A qualitative research design was used to identify elements of organizational learning in the practices of three very different schools identified as improving the students’ learning outcomes. The research methods included semi-structured interviews, team meeting observations, an anonymous questionnaire and document analysis. An analytical framework identifying five elements of organizational learning, developed from a review of the organizational learning literature, was used to evaluate each school’s ability to learn about their teaching and learning programmes as a result of reviewing students’ achievement information. The research findings identified elements of the organizational learning framework in the practices of all three schools. It was found that whilst the elements of the framework were necessary, the entirety of the framework was most significant in facilitating organizational learning. In order for the schools to learn to improve the learning of their students, they needed to have a well defined infrastructure for the collection, collation, analysis and use of student achievement information. The occurrence of the infrastructure alone did not, however, facilitate organizational learning. The school leaders and teachers needed to apply the appropriate curriculum content, pedagogical and assessment literacy knowledge to the assessment data in order to make sense of it and to use the information to review and refine their teaching and learning programmes. The acquisition of appropriate levels of professional knowledge appeared to be facilitated within a culture where teachers felt safe and confident to challenge and be challenged in their collegial discussions about students’ learning. Rigorous collegial discussions appeared to foster team learning and to be leader driven. When the appropriate professional knowledge was not available within the organization, learning only appeared to occur when the necessary expertise was accessed from the external environment.

This study describes the attributes of a highly accomplished mathematics teacher as reported by the students in their class, and also determines whether high school students can differentiate between highly accomplished mathematics teachers and others. The 51-item instrument, Students Evaluating Accomplished Teaching – Mathematics, was developed to map the construct of highly accomplished teaching as articulated by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards in their Adolescent and Young Adulthood Mathematics Standards. Two focus groups of New Zealand high school mathematics teachers reviewed these Standards, and found that there were more similarities than differences between the Standards and what they would expect of a highly accomplished teacher in New Zealand. Questionnaire items were drafted relating to each of 470 statements in the Standards. These items were trialled in New Zealand high schools, and analysed using factor analysis and item response theory, to select items that completely mapped the Standards. The questionnaire was then administered to 1611 students in the classes of thirty-two National Board Certified Teachers and twenty-six non-Board colleagues in 13 states of the USA. Multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant function analysis were used to establish that students can record and report the difference between NBCTs and their non-Board certified colleagues, and describe what students believe are the attributes of a good teacher. Highly accomplished teachers build a relationship between their students and the mathematics curriculum, as well as with the language and processes of mathematics, by engaging their minds with challenging material and rich tasks. These results provide further validation of the NBPTS certification process, and indicate that students provide dependable evaluations of their teachers. The student evaluation questionnaire could be used with confidence in both the USA and New Zealand to identify highly accomplished mathematics teachers.

Active labour market programmes are an important component of government labour market policy internationally and in New Zealand. The growth in unemployment, and in particular male and long term unemployment, since the mid 1980's in New Zealand have contributed to the enhanced role of active labour market programmes in government policy. In the early 1990's the New Zealand government introduced a menu of interventions including subsidy, work experience and training programmes. Concomitant with this development has been increased pressure from political, business and social groups to assess the effectiveness of this approach in lowering unemployment. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the effect of active labour market policy utilised in New Zealand from 1989 to 1997. Whether or not these active labour market interventions were beneficial to those males who participated in them, the effect of treatment upon the treated, is the parameter estimated. The range of programmes makes it possible to analyse a number of programme evaluation issues. These include the overall question of the impact of subsidy, work experience and training programmes in general, but also other specific research questions. In particular the range of subsidy programmes makes it possible to identify that subsidies to private sector firms are more effective than those to public sector organisations. The effectiveness of start-up subsidies for the unemployed are also evaluated and found to be beneficial. The effects of participation upon selected education and ethnic groups are also estimated. Since there is no one estimation approach that works in all circumstances, both regression and matching estimators are used. In order to achieve this it is necessary to create two estimation datasets as the data requirements vary for each technique. The main findings from the research are that participation in active labour market programmes is beneficial in reducing the length of time that participants are registered as unemployed. Work experience programmes have the largest impact, followed by subsidies. The effect of training programmes is smallest. The major beneficial effect occurs in the year following participation and then reduces in subsequent years. There are also some important methodological findings, including the sensitivity of results to the time frame, to the datasets chosen, and to the estimation techniques used.