As global change alters the chemical and physical dynamics of the ocean, it is increasingly necessary to determine ecological responses across environmental gradients. The benthic ecosystems of fjords often contain a multitude of environmental gradients conducive to multivariate field studies. In this thesis, I describe the benthic community structure of two British Columbian fjords in relation to markedly different environmental variables. In Chapter 2, I show a strong correlation between suspension-feeder abundance and flow structure on the steep fjord walls of Douglas Channel, BC. I also describe distinct assemblages with depth and with location along the fjord head-mouth axis. Using a suite of biological traits, I show that the deep portion (> 400 m depth) of the most seaward site is the most taxonomically and functionally diverse in the fjord. My results suggest fjord walls form an expansive ecosystem containing diverse and dense assemblages of suspension feeders relevant to the flow of energy through fjord basins and as biodiversity reservoirs. In Chapter 3, I extend a long-term hypoxia time-series (2006 -2016) to document the response of soft-bottom epibenthic megafauna of Saanich Inlet, BC to a prolonged hypoxic event in 2016 that caused abundance declines, community aggregation and shifts in species composition more extreme than those seen in the 2013 hypoxia cycle. I also assess community threshold responses along the oxygen gradient; I found community transitions consistent across years and with Northeast Pacific oxygen thresholds based in ecophysiological studies. Taken together, these studies show a strong coupling between oceanographic conditions and the community structure of fjord benthos. I suggest that climate-driven alterations in North Pacific oceanographic regimes may portend major changes in fjord ecosystems. / Graduate

Mémoire (M.P.Aquat.)--Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, 1990. / Document électronique également accessible en format PDF. CaQCU

Les sédiments déposés dans les fjords norvégiens contiennent des informations précieuses sur la dynamiquepassée de la circulation de surface en mer de Norvège (Courant Nord Atlantique –NAC- et Courant Côtier deNorvège –NCC-), ainsi que sur le climat régional du continent bordier et du domaine océanique adjacent. Letransport méridien par le NAC d’eaux chaudes et salées participe efficacement au fonctionnement de la bouclethermohaline globale. Le NCC, alimenté par les apports continentaux depuis la mer Baltique, contrôlel’hydrologie des fjords norvégiens. L’objectif de la présente étude est de tester l’utilisation, dans le fjord deTrondheim, des isotopes stables benthiques et des assemblages de dinokystes en tant que traceur de lavariabilité hydrologique et climatique locale et régionale. Ce travail repose sur une série exceptionnelle desédiments de surface et de carottes d’interface, recouvrant de façon équilibrée l’ensemble des sous-systèmesdu fjord. Les changements climatiques et océanographiques modernes et récents (derniers 35 à 50 ans) décritspar nos traceurs sont comparés à plusieurs séries temporelles instrumentées de paramètres hydrologiques etclimatiques clés, afin de déterminer les différents mécanismes à l’origine de la signature spatiale et temporelledes proxies. Nos résultats montrent que les isotopes stables benthiques et les assemblages de dinokystestraduisent efficacement les variations hydrologiques et climatiques locales et régionales, le gradient spatial desalinité, l’efficacité du mélange vertical, la température des eaux atlantiques entrantes, et le budget de lasédimentation de matière organique (quantité et origine) expliquant de façon importante les variabilitésspatiales et temporelles de nos traceurs. La dynamique atmosphérique liée à l’Oscillation Nord Atlantiqueexplique l’essentiel des changements récents de la circulation interne du fjord et de la nature de lasédimentation (marine vs. continentale). / Sedimentary archives in Norwegian fjords contain valuable highly resolved information on the past dynamics ofmajor surface circulation features of the Norwegian Sea (North Atlantic Current and Norwegian CoastalCurrent), as well as on the regional climate of the Norwegian continental and surrounding oceanic realms. TheNAC transports significant amounts of warm and saline water poleward and constitutes an essentialcomponent of the global thermohaline circulation. The NCC is supplied by Norwegian rivers and fjords and itslateral and vertical distribution fundamentally controls the hydrology of Norwegian fjords. In the present studywe examine the use of benthic stable isotopes and dinocyst assemblages in the Trondheimsfjord, centralNorway, as proxies of the local and regional hydrological and climate changes. This study is essentially based onan exceptional set of surface sediment samples and multi-cores which are evenly distributed within the variousfjord subsystems. Modern and recent (last 35 to 50 years) oceanographic and climatic changes inferred fromour proxies are discussed in view of time-series of key hydrological and climatic parameters in order todetermine the various mechanisms driving the spatial and temporal variabilities of the proxies. Our resultsshow that benthic stable isotopes and dinocyst assemblages reliably record the local and regional hydrologicalvariations in the Trondheimsfjord and associated climate changes linked to key characteristics and processessuch as salinity gradients, water column mixing, temperatures of the incoming Atlantic water. Changes inatmospheric processes alike the North Atlantic Oscillation explain most of the recorded recent changes in thefjord internal circulation and nature of sedimentation (marine vs. continental).

It is suggested that the Mafic Units and HS are allochthonous and were emplaced onto the WGR during an early stage of the Caledonian Orogeny. All units, including the Basement Gneisses, have suffered retrogression during a late extensional phase which continued into at least the Middle Devonian.

The recent thinning, acceleration and retreat of tidewater glaciers around Greenland suggests that these systems are highly sensitive to a change in climate. Tidewater glacier dynamics have already had a significant impact on global sea level, and, given projected future climate warming, will likely continue to do so over the coming century. Understanding of the processes connecting climatic change to tidewater glacier response is, however, at an early stage. Current leading thinking links tidewater glacier change to ocean warming by submarine melting of glacier calving fronts, yet the process of submarine melting remains poorly understood. This thesis combines modelling and field data to investigate submarine melting at tidewater glaciers, ultimately seeking to constrain the sensitivity of the Greenland Ice Sheet to climate change. Submarine melting is thought to be enhanced where subglacial runoff enters the ocean and drives energetic ice-marginal plumes. In this thesis, two contrasting models are used to examine the dynamics of these plumes; the Massachusetts Institute of Technology general circulation model (MITgcm) and the simpler buoyant plume theory (BPT). The first result of this thesis, obtained with the MITgcm, is that the spatial distribution of subglacial runoff at the grounding line of a tidewater glacier is a key control on the rate and spatial distribution of submarine melting. Focussed subglacial runoff induces rapid but localised melting, while diffuse runoff induces slower but spatially homogeneous melting. Furthermore, for the same subglacial runoff, total ablation by submarine melting from diffuse runoff exceeds that from focussed runoff by at least a factor of five. BPT is then used to examine the relationship between plume-induced submarine melting and key physical parameters, such as plume geometry, fjord stratification, and the magnitude of subglacial runoff. It is shown that submarine melt rate is proportional to the magnitude of subglacial runoff raised to the exponent of 1/3, regardless of plume geometry, provided runoff lies below a critical threshold and the fjord is weakly stratified. Above the runoff threshold and for strongly stratified fjords, the exponent respectively decreases and increases. The obtained relationships are combined into a single parameterisation thereby providing a useful first-order estimate of submarine melt rate with potential for incorporation into predictive ice flow models. Having investigated many of the factors affecting submarine melt rate, this thesis turns to the effect of melting on tidewater glacier dynamics and calving processes. Specifically, feedbacks between submarine melting and calving front shape are evaluated by coupling BPT to a dynamic ice-ocean boundary which evolves according to modelled submarine melt rates. In agreement with observations, the model shows calving fronts becoming undercut by submarine melting, but hints at a critical role for subglacial channels in this process. The total ablation by submarine melting increases with the degree of undercutting due to increased ice-ocean surface area. It is suggested that the relative pace of undercutting versus ice velocity may define the dominant calving style at a tidewater glacier. Finally, comparison of plumes modelled in both MITgcm and BPT with those observed at Kangiata Nunata Sermia (KNS), a large tidewater glacier in south-west Greenland, suggests that subglacial runoff at KNS is often diffuse in nature. In addition to the above implications for submarine melting, diffuse drainage may enhance basal sliding during warmer summers, thereby providing a potential link between increasing atmospheric temperature and tidewater glacier acceleration which does not invoke the role of the ocean. This thesis provides a comprehensive investigation and quantification of the factors affecting submarine melting at tidewater glaciers, a complex process that is believed to be one of the key influences on the current and future stability of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Based on the magnitude of modelled melt rates, and their effect on calving front shape, the process of submarine melting is a likely driver of retreat at slower-flowing tidewater glaciers in Greenland. For melting to influence the largest and fastest-flowing glaciers requires invoking a sensitive coupling between melting and calving which is as yet obscure. It should however be noted that modelled melt rates depend critically on parameters which are poorly constrained. The results and parameterisations developed in this thesis should now be taken forward through testing against field observations - which are currently rare - and, from a modelling perspective, coupling with ice flow models to provide a more complete picture of the interaction of the Greenland Ice Sheet with the ocean.

Suite au déluge qui a marqué la région du Saguenay en 1996, une couche de nouveaux sédiments a recouvert les sédiments du secteur amont du fjord du Saguenay. Avant le déluge cette zone était caractérisée par la présence de sédiments contaminés, associés au déversement incontrôlé d’effluents liquides, pratiqué dans le passé par les industries de la région. La couche de sédiments déposés en 1996 a enfoui les sédiments contaminés et constitue donc une barrière isolante composée de matériaux plus propres. Afin d'estimer l'efficacité à long terme de la couche, un nouveau modèle numérique (TRANSCAP-1D) a été développé. Ce modèle simule la migration de composantes dissoutes dans une colonne de sédiments et considère l'advection, la diffusion/dispersion, et l'effet de la bio-irrigation. La formulation mathématique représente un milieu à double porosité, composé de pores et de trous ou tubes de vers. Le modèle a été calé avec les profils de concentration de l'arsenic dissous qui ont été mesurés à deux stations du fjord du Saguenay, après la déposition de la couche de recouvrement naturelle. Par la suite, une analyse de sensibilité a été réalisée afin d'évaluer l'impact de certains paramètres caractérisés par une variabilité ou incertitude importante aux sites à l'étude. Les résultats montrent que les paramètres associés à la bio-irrigation ont un impact significatif sur la migration des contaminants dissous vers la colonne d'eau. Par la suite, nous avons réalisé une analyse d'incertitude en utilisant la méthode Monte Carlo et les résultats ont été intégrés dans une analyse de décision pour le design d'une couche de recouvrement potentielle. Le cas présenté est hypothétique et concerne la réhabilitation d'un site contaminé qui est fréquenté régulièrement par la population de bélugas du Saint Laurent. L'exemple illustre les avantages de l'application de l'analyse de décision pour trouver l'alternative correspondante au coût total plus bas, en considérant les coûts et les risques d'échec associés au projet de réhabilitation. / In 1996 two days of intense rainfalls caused severe flooding in the Saguenay region and a new sediment layer was deposited on the upstream area of the Saguenay fjord. In the past, this area was exposed to the uncontrolled discharge of industrial effluents and the sediments were contaminated. The new sediment layer buried the contaminated sediments and constitutes a natural barrier of cleaner material, which isolates the contaminants from the water column. A new numerical model (TRANSCAP-1D) was developed in order to estimate the effectiveness of the natural barrier in isolating the contaminated sediments from the overlying water column. The model simulates the migration of dissolved compounds in a sediment column and includes advection, diffusion/dispersion and the effect of bio-irrigation. The mathematical formulation represents a double porosity medium, composed of sediment pores and tubes or burrows dug by worms. The model was calibrated using the concentration profiles of dissolved arsenic measured at two stations of the Saguenay fjord, after the capping event. Thereafter, a sensitivity analysis was performed in order to evaluate the impact of certain parameters showing a great variability and uncertainty at the studied sites. The results indicate that the parameters associated to bio-irrigation have a significant impact on the migration of dissolved contaminants towards the water column. Thereafter, we performed an uncertainty analysis, using the Monte Carlo method. The results were integrated in a decision analysis for the design of a capping layer in a hypothetical case of sediment remediation. The presented case considers a contaminated site regularly frequented by the beluga population of the St. Lawrence Estuary. The example illustrates the advantages of the application of the decision analysis method, which is used to find the least cost option, considering the costs and failure risks associated to the remediation project.

Les sédiments déposés dans les fjords norvégiens contiennent des informations précieuses sur la dynamiquepassée de la circulation de surface en mer de Norvège (Courant Nord Atlantique -NAC- et Courant Côtier deNorvège -NCC-), ainsi que sur le climat régional du continent bordier et du domaine océanique adjacent. Letransport méridien par le NAC d'eaux chaudes et salées participe efficacement au fonctionnement de la bouclethermohaline globale. Le NCC, alimenté par les apports continentaux depuis la mer Baltique, contrôlel'hydrologie des fjords norvégiens. L'objectif de la présente étude est de tester l'utilisation, dans le fjord deTrondheim, des isotopes stables benthiques et des assemblages de dinokystes en tant que traceur de lavariabilité hydrologique et climatique locale et régionale. Ce travail repose sur une série exceptionnelle desédiments de surface et de carottes d'interface, recouvrant de façon équilibrée l'ensemble des sous-systèmesdu fjord. Les changements climatiques et océanographiques modernes et récents (derniers 35 à 50 ans) décritspar nos traceurs sont comparés à plusieurs séries temporelles instrumentées de paramètres hydrologiques etclimatiques clés, afin de déterminer les différents mécanismes à l'origine de la signature spatiale et temporelledes proxies. Nos résultats montrent que les isotopes stables benthiques et les assemblages de dinokystestraduisent efficacement les variations hydrologiques et climatiques locales et régionales, le gradient spatial desalinité, l'efficacité du mélange vertical, la température des eaux atlantiques entrantes, et le budget de lasédimentation de matière organique (quantité et origine) expliquant de façon importante les variabilitésspatiales et temporelles de nos traceurs. La dynamique atmosphérique liée à l'Oscillation Nord Atlantiqueexplique l'essentiel des changements récents de la circulation interne du fjord et de la nature de lasédimentation (marine vs. continentale).

L'analyse combinée d'imageries topographiques LiDAR et bathymétriques multifaisceaux à haute résolution ainsi que des âges au radiocarbone fournit de nouvelles informations qui permettent de proposer des étapes de la déglaciation ainsi que les patrons de retrait de la marge de l'Inlandsis laurentidien (IL) dans le fjord du Saguenay. L'analyse spatiale de la distribution de moraines, la présence de dépôts glacio-lacustres perchés et la géométrie des épandages fluvioglaciaires de contact permettent de mettre en évidence l'existence antérieure d'une langue de glace dans le fjord du Saguenay, s'étendant, au cours de ses différentes phases de retrait, de l'embouchure du fjord jusqu'au nord-est de la Baie des Ha! Ha!. Cette langue de glace avait des incursions dans les principales baies du fjord (Baie Sainte-Marguerite et Anse-Saint-Jean). Lors du retrait, trois seuils bathymétriques ont agi comme points d'ancrage où la marge de la langue de glace s'est stabilisée, soit à (1) l'embouchure du fjord sur le Fleuve Saint-Laurent, (2) au niveau du village Sacré-Cœur et (3) au niveau de la Baie-Sainte-Marguerite. Cette stagnation de la marge a permis l'accumulation de sédiments glaciomarins au front du glacier et dans les principales vallées adjacentes, c'est-à-dire Tadoussac, Sacré-Cœur et Baie-Sainte-Marguerite. À l'ouest du seuil de Baie-Sainte-Marguerite, la marge de l'IL s'est retirée rapidement vers la Baie des Ha! Ha! et plus graduellement vers le nord-ouest et le Lac-Saint-Jean. La topographie et la bathymétrie du fjord sont les principaux facteurs influençant la dynamique de retrait des marges glaciaires avec la largeur du fjord et les seuils bathymétriques contrôlant les phases de stabilisation et de retrait de la glace. Au fur et à mesure du retrait de la marge de l'IL, des lacs proglaciaires se sont formés près de Baie-Sainte-Marguerite et de l'Anse-Saint-Jean, où se trouvent la plupart des terrasses de lacs proglaciaires. Ces lacs proglaciaires se sont probablement formés pendant la stabilisation de la marge au seuil de Baie-Sainte-Marguerite. / The combined analyses of LiDAR terrestrial topographic data, high-resolution multibeam bathymetric data and radiocarbon dating provide new information that allow estimating the deglacial sequence and retreat patterns of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) margin in the Saguenay Fjord. The spatial analysis of the moraine distribution, the presence of perched glacio-lacustrine deposits and the geometry of fluvioglacial outwash highlight the former existence of an ice tongue in the Saguenay Fjord, extending, during its different retreat phases, from the mouth of the fjord to the northeast of Baie des Ha! Ha! with incursions in the fjord's main bays (Baie-Sainte-Marguerite and Anse-Saint-Jean). During retreat, three bathymetric sills, i.e., at (1) the fjord mouth on the Saint Lawrence River, (2) near the Sacré-Cœur village and (3) near the Baie-Sainte-Marguerite Bay, acted as anchor points where the ice tongue margin stabilized. These standstills led to the accumulation of glaciomarine sediments at the glacier front and in the adjacent main valleys: Tadoussac, Sacré-Cœur and Baie-Sainte-Marguerite. After the third bathymetric sill, the LIS margin retreated rapidly towards Baie des Ha! Ha! and retreated more gradually towards Saguenay Lac-Saint-Jean, i.e. northwest. Fjord topography and bathymetry seem to have been the main factors influencing retreating ice dynamics, with fjord width and bathymetric sills controlling ice retreat. As the LIS margin retreated, proglacial lakes developed near Baie-Sainte-Marguerite and Anse-Saint-Jean where most proglacial lake terraces occur with three perched proglacial lakes near Baie-Éternité. These proglacial lakes likely developed during the Baie-Sainte-Marguerite standstill.

<p>In this thesis I examine and evaluate the effects of a documented large-scale eutrophication on macroalgal vegetation on the Swedish coast. During the past century the load of nutrients has increased manifold in the Baltic Sea area, increasing primary production and organic sedimentation significantly. By re-investigating a unique reference material of macroalgal vegetation from the 1940-60s and by conducting new diving studies at the same sites, I showed that long-term trends in macroalgal community composition and species’ distributions are consistent with changes expected from an increased nutrient availability. In the Öregrund archipelago (northern Baltic Sea), I documented a declined depth distribution of the dominant canopy forming alga, <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>, and an increased abundance of opportunistic ephemeral algae compared to 52-53 years ago. In the Gullmar Fjord area (Skagerrak), trends included increased abundances of functional groups with opportunistic algae, decreased abundances of large perennial algae and a general decline in the depth distribution of the vegetation compared to 36-57 years ago. Sediment removal experiments in the northern Baltic Sea confirmed the hypothesis that sedimentation influences macroalgal community composition. Species depending on short periods of reproduction were clearly favoured by sediment removal, especially <i>F. vesiculosus</i> that seemed limited in depth by the local sediment load. Species with long continuous periods of dispersal by spores and/or fragments (for example the ephemerals <i>Cladophora glomerata</i>, <i>Ceramium tenuicorne</i> and <i>Enteromorpha</i> spp.) were more tolerant to the natural sediment load. In general, sediment removal favoured macroalgal establishment and development, indicating that variation in the natural sediment load is an important constraint for sublittoral rocky-shore macroalgal community development. I conclude by suggesting that the documented long-term changes in macroalgal vegetation on the Swedish coast partly are explained by an increased organic sedimentation in these areas.</p>

In this thesis I examine and evaluate the effects of a documented large-scale eutrophication on macroalgal vegetation on the Swedish coast. During the past century the load of nutrients has increased manifold in the Baltic Sea area, increasing primary production and organic sedimentation significantly. By re-investigating a unique reference material of macroalgal vegetation from the 1940-60s and by conducting new diving studies at the same sites, I showed that long-term trends in macroalgal community composition and species’ distributions are consistent with changes expected from an increased nutrient availability. In the Öregrund archipelago (northern Baltic Sea), I documented a declined depth distribution of the dominant canopy forming alga, Fucus vesiculosus, and an increased abundance of opportunistic ephemeral algae compared to 52-53 years ago. In the Gullmar Fjord area (Skagerrak), trends included increased abundances of functional groups with opportunistic algae, decreased abundances of large perennial algae and a general decline in the depth distribution of the vegetation compared to 36-57 years ago. Sediment removal experiments in the northern Baltic Sea confirmed the hypothesis that sedimentation influences macroalgal community composition. Species depending on short periods of reproduction were clearly favoured by sediment removal, especially F. vesiculosus that seemed limited in depth by the local sediment load. Species with long continuous periods of dispersal by spores and/or fragments (for example the ephemerals Cladophora glomerata, Ceramium tenuicorne and Enteromorpha spp.) were more tolerant to the natural sediment load. In general, sediment removal favoured macroalgal establishment and development, indicating that variation in the natural sediment load is an important constraint for sublittoral rocky-shore macroalgal community development. I conclude by suggesting that the documented long-term changes in macroalgal vegetation on the Swedish coast partly are explained by an increased organic sedimentation in these areas.