Este estudo desenvolve uma técnica para caracterizar o escoamento bifásico, utilizando sensores de deformação baseados em redes de Bragg em fibras ópticas. Esses sensores apresentam características relevantes, a pequena dimensão e a possibilidade de medição com precisão em um grande número de parâmetros em condições diversas. A unidade sensora é constituída por uma rede de Bragg em fibra óptica posicionada transversalmente em relação ao escoamento e fixado nas paredes do tubo. A pressão hidrodinâmica aplicada pelo escoamento de líquido ou pelo escoamento de líquido e gás induz deformação na fibra óptica, a qual pode ser detectada pela rede de Bragg. Como a pressão aplicada está diretamente relacionada com a vazão mássica, é possível estabelecer uma relação usando o deslocamento do comprimento de onda da ressonância da rede de Bragg para determinar a vazão mássica quando a velocidade de escoamento é bem conhecida. No escoamento bifásico, há uma alteração significativa na força aplicada na fibra óptica, a qual contabiliza as densidades distintas das referidas substâncias. Logo, a deformação da fibra óptica e a correspondente mudança de comprimento de onda de rede de Bragg serão muito diferentes quando no escoamento houver uma bolha de ar ou um pistão de líquido, permitindo, assim a sua detecção à medida que o escoamento flui através do tubo. Devido a sua capacidade de multiplexação e versatilidade, o uso de sensores de redes de Bragg em fibra óptica mostrou ser particularmente adequado para esta aplicação. Uma ferramenta de detecção de 18 sensores quase distribuídos uniformemente ao longo do tubo foi desenvolvida tornando possível a caracterização do escoamento, bem como o acompanhamento das bolhas de ar ao longo de uma grande parte do escoamento. Os ensaios foram realizados em uma planta piloto de escoamento bifásico gás-líquido, onde diversas condições operacionais foram geradas e analisadas. A técnica desenvolvida foi validada através de comparações com modelos termodinâmicos empíricos disponíveis na literatura e também com o sensor wire-mesh, apresentando boa concordância com os valores de referência. O estudo viabiliza a construção futura de sensores para serem empregados na obtenção de parâmetros importantes nos modelos de escoamento multifásico, abrindo muitas oportunidades para ferramentas de medição de laboratório e aplicações de campo. / This study developed a technique to characterize the two phase flow using optical fiber Bragg grating strain sensors. These sensors have features such as small size, flexibility, allowing to accurately measure a number of parameters under adverse conditions. The sensor unit consists of optical fiber Bragg grating positioned transversely to the flow and fixed in the pipe walls. The hydrodynamic pressure applied by the liquid or air/liquid flow to the optical fiber induces deformation that can be detected by the optical fiber Bragg grating. Given that the applied pressure is directly related to the mass flow it is possible to establish a relationship using the grating resonance wavelength shift to determine the mass flow when the flow velocity is well known. For two phase flows of air and liquid there is a significant change in the force applied to fiber that is accounted for the very distinct densities of these substances. As a consequence the optical fiber deformation and the correspondent grating wavelength shift as function of the flow will be very different for an air bubble or a liquid slug allowing their detection as they flow through the pipe. Due to its versatility and multiplexing capabilities optical fiber Bragg gratings are particularly suitable for this application. The experiments were performed in a pilot plant using air-water two-phase flows, in which various operating conditions were generated and analyzed. A quasi-distributed sensing tool with 18 sensors evenly spread along the pipe is developed and characterized making possible the characterization of the flow as well as the tracking of the bubbles over a large section of the test bed. The technique developed was validated through comparisons with available empirical mechanical models and also with the wire- mesh sensor, showing good agreement with the reference values. The study allows for the future construction of sensors that can be used to assist empirical models of multiphase flows, and open up plenty of opportunities to both laboratory measurement tools as well as field applications.

Este estudo desenvolve uma técnica para caracterizar o escoamento bifásico, utilizando sensores de deformação baseados em redes de Bragg em fibras ópticas. Esses sensores apresentam características relevantes, a pequena dimensão e a possibilidade de medição com precisão em um grande número de parâmetros em condições diversas. A unidade sensora é constituída por uma rede de Bragg em fibra óptica posicionada transversalmente em relação ao escoamento e fixado nas paredes do tubo. A pressão hidrodinâmica aplicada pelo escoamento de líquido ou pelo escoamento de líquido e gás induz deformação na fibra óptica, a qual pode ser detectada pela rede de Bragg. Como a pressão aplicada está diretamente relacionada com a vazão mássica, é possível estabelecer uma relação usando o deslocamento do comprimento de onda da ressonância da rede de Bragg para determinar a vazão mássica quando a velocidade de escoamento é bem conhecida. No escoamento bifásico, há uma alteração significativa na força aplicada na fibra óptica, a qual contabiliza as densidades distintas das referidas substâncias. Logo, a deformação da fibra óptica e a correspondente mudança de comprimento de onda de rede de Bragg serão muito diferentes quando no escoamento houver uma bolha de ar ou um pistão de líquido, permitindo, assim a sua detecção à medida que o escoamento flui através do tubo. Devido a sua capacidade de multiplexação e versatilidade, o uso de sensores de redes de Bragg em fibra óptica mostrou ser particularmente adequado para esta aplicação. Uma ferramenta de detecção de 18 sensores quase distribuídos uniformemente ao longo do tubo foi desenvolvida tornando possível a caracterização do escoamento, bem como o acompanhamento das bolhas de ar ao longo de uma grande parte do escoamento. Os ensaios foram realizados em uma planta piloto de escoamento bifásico gás-líquido, onde diversas condições operacionais foram geradas e analisadas. A técnica desenvolvida foi validada através de comparações com modelos termodinâmicos empíricos disponíveis na literatura e também com o sensor wire-mesh, apresentando boa concordância com os valores de referência. O estudo viabiliza a construção futura de sensores para serem empregados na obtenção de parâmetros importantes nos modelos de escoamento multifásico, abrindo muitas oportunidades para ferramentas de medição de laboratório e aplicações de campo. / This study developed a technique to characterize the two phase flow using optical fiber Bragg grating strain sensors. These sensors have features such as small size, flexibility, allowing to accurately measure a number of parameters under adverse conditions. The sensor unit consists of optical fiber Bragg grating positioned transversely to the flow and fixed in the pipe walls. The hydrodynamic pressure applied by the liquid or air/liquid flow to the optical fiber induces deformation that can be detected by the optical fiber Bragg grating. Given that the applied pressure is directly related to the mass flow it is possible to establish a relationship using the grating resonance wavelength shift to determine the mass flow when the flow velocity is well known. For two phase flows of air and liquid there is a significant change in the force applied to fiber that is accounted for the very distinct densities of these substances. As a consequence the optical fiber deformation and the correspondent grating wavelength shift as function of the flow will be very different for an air bubble or a liquid slug allowing their detection as they flow through the pipe. Due to its versatility and multiplexing capabilities optical fiber Bragg gratings are particularly suitable for this application. The experiments were performed in a pilot plant using air-water two-phase flows, in which various operating conditions were generated and analyzed. A quasi-distributed sensing tool with 18 sensors evenly spread along the pipe is developed and characterized making possible the characterization of the flow as well as the tracking of the bubbles over a large section of the test bed. The technique developed was validated through comparisons with available empirical mechanical models and also with the wire- mesh sensor, showing good agreement with the reference values. The study allows for the future construction of sensors that can be used to assist empirical models of multiphase flows, and open up plenty of opportunities to both laboratory measurement tools as well as field applications.

<p>Уз растуће цене енергената, данас је од пресудног значаја тачно мерење<br />протока флуида у индустријским процесима. Због своје једноставности,<br />поузданости и једноставног одржавања, мерне бленде су често<br />распрострањени мерни инструменти у многим индустријама.<br />Конвенционална мерна бленда са једним отвором (БЈО) је широко<br />заступљен мерни инструмент на бази диференцијалног притиска, али овај<br />инструмент има и одређене недостатке, који се могу превазићи мерном<br />блендом са више отвора (БВО). Предмет истраживања докторске<br />дисертације је била БВО. За истраживање су се користиле<br />експериментална и нумеричка метода, а истражили су се однос површине<br />отвора бленде и површине попречног пресека цеви &beta;, пад притисака,<br />губитак притисака, утицај угла излазне ивице мерне бленде, утицај<br />влажности гаса и утицај равних деоница испред и иза мерне бленде на<br />тачност мерења. Такође поред овога одредио се и губитак снаге који<br />настаје код различитих мерних бленди, поврат притиска, коефицијент<br />протока тј. коефицијент пада притиска. Представљени резултати у оквиру<br />докторске дисертације су показали бројне предности БВО у односу на БЈО.</p> / <p>Uz rastuće cene energenata, danas je od presudnog značaja tačno merenje<br />protoka fluida u industrijskim procesima. Zbog svoje jednostavnosti,<br />pouzdanosti i jednostavnog održavanja, merne blende su često<br />rasprostranjeni merni instrumenti u mnogim industrijama.<br />Konvencionalna merna blenda sa jednim otvorom (BJO) je široko<br />zastupljen merni instrument na bazi diferencijalnog pritiska, ali ovaj<br />instrument ima i određene nedostatke, koji se mogu prevazići mernom<br />blendom sa više otvora (BVO). Predmet istraživanja doktorske<br />disertacije je bila BVO. Za istraživanje su se koristile<br />eksperimentalna i numerička metoda, a istražili su se odnos površine<br />otvora blende i površine poprečnog preseka cevi &beta;, pad pritisaka,<br />gubitak pritisaka, uticaj ugla izlazne ivice merne blende, uticaj<br />vlažnosti gasa i uticaj ravnih deonica ispred i iza merne blende na<br />tačnost merenja. Takođe pored ovoga odredio se i gubitak snage koji<br />nastaje kod različitih mernih blendi, povrat pritiska, koeficijent<br />protoka tj. koeficijent pada pritiska. Predstavljeni rezultati u okviru<br />doktorske disertacije su pokazali brojne prednosti BVO u odnosu na BJO.</p> / <p>Nowadays, with rising energy prices, accurate flow measurement is playing an<br />important role in industrial processes. Due to its simplicity, reliability and ease of<br />maintenance, orifice flow meters are very common measuring instruments in<br />many industries. Conventional single-hole orifice (SHO) flow meter is widely<br />used differential pressure-based instrument, but this instrument has some<br />disadvantages that can be overcome by multi-hole orifice (MHO) flow meter. The<br />subject of the doctoral dissertation research was MHO flow meter. Experimental<br />and numerical methods were used for the research, whereas the ratio of the<br />orifice area and the cross-sectional pipe area &beta;, pressure drop, pressure loss,<br />angle of bevel influence, gas humidity influence and straight sections upstream<br />and downstream of the orifice influence on measurement accuracy were<br />investigated. Also, power loss for different orifice flow meters, pressure recovery,<br />discharge coefficient i.e. pressure drop coefficient were determined. Results<br />presented within the doctoral dissertation showed numerous advantages of<br />MHO compared to SHO.</p>

The subject of the diploma thesis is research of the testing process exhaust clamps. There is a description of a testing device designed to provide simulations of the real operating conditions on an exhaust assembly. The testing device is named the Hot Gas Test Bench. The thesis solves the optimization process of the test setup by determining the optimal fuel ratio, which is given by air flow as oxidizer and flow of natural gas as fuel. The input parameters which provide flow of mentioned fluids are speeds of blowers. In diploma thesis is created a design of initialization and control process to ensure the optional combustion ratio during the entire length of the test.

[pt] Por muito tempo, os sistemas de medição dinâmica de petróleo não foram usados para a transferência de custódia. Eles eram utilizados basicamente para fins operacionais, como detectar vazamentos e transferências internas. O aumento progressivo dos preços do barril de petróleo exigiu das medições de petróleo uma incerteza cada vez menor, o que provocou o desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias que resultaram em sistemas dinâmicos de medição de alta precisão a serem utilizados na transferência de custódia. Nesta pesquisa foi avaliada a substituição das medições estáticas por medições dinâmicas no faturamento de exportações marítimas de petróleo, com o objetivo de agilizar as operações de carregamento de navios em píeres diminuindo a indisponibilidade dos recursos logísticos envolvidos, de minimizar a exposição da companhia a perdas financeiras devido a faturamentos errôneos e de verificar que essa diminuição da exposição justifica o investimento em sistemas de medição dinâmica. Foram descritas as medições de tanques de terra, as medições de tanques de navio e os sistemas de medição dinâmica, avaliando procedimentos, equipamentos, além de restrições, problemas e incertezas associadas a cada método. Foi dada atenção especial aos procedimentos de arqueação de tanques para armazenamento de granéis líquidos, comparando procedimentos utilizados no Brasil pelo Inmetro aos requisitos da Norma ISO -7507, e a rastreabilidade metrológica dos equipamentos de medição em relação aos procedimentos utilizados na sua calibração. / [en] For many years, dynamic measurement systems have not been used in the petroleum industry for custody transfer applications, only for operational reasons like detecting leaks and internal transfers. The progressive growth of crude oil prices required measurements with a smaller uncertainty, leading to developing news technologies, resulting in high accuracy flow meters to be used in custody transfer. The main objective of this research was evaluate the replacement of static measurements by dynamic measurements in oil exports sales in order to speed up the loading of vessels, decreasing the unavailability of logistical resources involved, to minimize the company s exposure to economic losses due to erroneous bill of ladings and verify if this justifies the investment in dynamic measurement systems. This research has discussed a number of issues associated with the uncertainty of the shore tanks, vessels tanks and dynamic measurements, evaluating procedures, equipment, and restrictions, problems and accuracy associated with each method. It also included a discussion about the difference between calibration of vertical cylindrical tanks procedures used in Brazil by Inmetro and the requirements of ISO -7507, and about traceability of measuring equipment calibration.

Electromagnetic flow meters are simple, rugged, non-invasive flow measuring instruments, which are extensively employed in many applications. In particular, they are ideally suited for the flow rate measurement of liquid metals, which serve as coolants in fast breeder reactors. In such applications, theoretical evaluation of the sensitivity turns out to be the best possible choice. Invariably, an evaluation of the associated electromagnetic fields forms the first step. However, due to the complexity of the problem, only numerical field computational approach would be feasible. In the pertinent literature, couple of e orts could be found which employ the well-known Galerkin Finite Element Method (GFEM) for the required task. However, GFEM is known to suffer from the numerical stability problem even at moderate flow rates. This problem is quite common in fluid dynamics area and several stabilization schemes have been suggested as a remedial measure. Among such schemes, the Streamline Upwinding Petrov Galerkin (SU/PG) method is a simple and widely employed approach. The same has been adopted in some of the moving conductor literatures for obtaining a stable solution. Nevertheless, in fluid dynamics literature, it has been shown that the SU/PG solution can suffer from distortion/peaking at the boundary. The remedial measures proposed are nonlinear in nature and hence are computationally demanding. Also, even the SU/PG scheme by itself requires significant additional computation for quadratic and higher order elements. Further, the value of stabilization parameter is not accurately known for 2D and 3D problems. The present work is basically an attempt to address the above problem for flow meter and other rectilinearly moving conductor problems. More specifically, but for the requirement of (graded) structured mesh along the flow direction, it basically aims to address a more general class of problems not just limited to the flow meter. Following the classical approach employed in fluid dynamics literature, first the problem is studied in its 1D form. It was observed that a relatively better performance of GFEM over FDM scheme is basically due to the difference in their Right Hand Side (RHS) terms, which represents the applied magnetic field. Taking clue from this, it was envisaged that a better insight to the numerical problem can be obtained by using the control system theory's transfer function approach. An application of FDM or GFEM to the 1D form of the governing equation, leads to flalge-braic equations with space variable in discrete form. Hence, a Z-transform based approach is employed to relate the applied magnetic field to the vector potential of the resulting reaction magnetic field. It is then shown that the presence of a pole at Z = -1 is basically responsible for the oscillations in the numerical solution. It is then proposed that by using the control systems pole-zero cancellation principle, stability can be brought into the numerical solution. This requires suitable modification of RHS terms in the discretised equations and accordingly, two novel schemes have been proposed which works within the framework of GFEM. In author's considered opinion, the use of Z-transform for analysing the stability of the numerical schemes and the idea of employing pole-zero cancellation to bring in stability, are first of its kind. In the first of the proposed schemes, the pole-zero cancellation is achieved by simply restating the input magnetic field in terms its vector potential. Solving the difference equations given by the application of FDM or GFEM to 1D version of the governing equation, it is analytically shown that the proposed scheme is absolutely stable at high flow rates. However, at midrange of flow rates there is a small error, which is analytically quantified. Then the scheme is applied to the original flow meter problem which has only axially varying applied field and the stability is demonstrated for an extensive range of flow rates. Note that the discretisation along the flow direction was restricted in the above exercise to graded regular mesh, which can readily be realised for problems involving rectilinearly moving conductors. In order to cater for more general cases in which the applied field varies in both axial and transverse directions, a second scheme is developed. Here the RHS term representing the input magnetic field is considered in a generic weighted average form. The required weights are evaluated by imposing apart from the need for an essential zero yielding term, the flux preservation and other symmetry conditions. The stability of this scheme is proven analytically for both 1D and 2D version of the problem using respectively, the 1D and 2D Z-transform based approaches. The analytical inferences are adequately validated with numerical exercises. Also, the small error present for the midrange of flow rates is analytically quantified. Then the second scheme is applied to the actual flow meter with a general magnetic field pro le. The proposed scheme is shown to be very stable and accurate even at very high flow rates. As before, the discretisation was restricted to graded regular mesh along the flow direction. By solving for the standard TEAM No. 9 benchmark problem, applicability of the second scheme for other rectilinearly moving conductor problem has been adequately demonstrated. Even though the problems considered in this work readily permits the use of a graded regular mesh along the flow direction, for the sake of completeness, discretisation with arbitrary quadrilateral and triangular mesh is also considered. The performance of the proposed schemes for such cases even though found to deteriorate, is still shown to be considerably better than the GFEM. In summary, this work has successfully proposed two novel, computationally effcient and stable GFEM schemes for the simulation of electromagnetic flow meters and other rectilin early moving conductor problems.