A Research Report submitted to the School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Science (course work / research report). 28 October 2015 / Eco-labels are voluntary policy tools for promoting environmental justice. Eco-labels have the potential to achieve environmental justice when they are environmentally reliable, and when they help consumers to be aware of, understand and feel motivated to purchase eco-labels. This study analysed the current situation of eco-labels in South Africa. There are a number of generic eco-labelling terms that have come into use on eco-labelled products. The history of the environmental problems that led to the use of these generic terms, along with the accreditation of such eco-labels was considered. The six most commonly found terms considered are “Dolphin Safe”, “Badger Friendly Honey”, “Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)-free”, “Natural”, “Free-range” and “Organic”. The environmental reliability of the most common eco-labels found in local supermarkets was analysed. Overall, eco-labels scored well on environmental soundness and transparency but lacked in communication with consumers. The majority of the eco-labels were third-party certified and accredited by ISEAL (International Social and Environmental Accreditation and labelling) and IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements). There are a variety of eco-labelled products for consumers to choose from in major supermarkets but the ratio of eco-labelled to regular food products is low, and the availability of eco-labelled products is not consistent. A questionnaire was used to assess the awareness, understanding and perception of consumers regarding eco-labels. The results were compared to a similar study on Swedish consumers to determine whether South African consumer perception regarding eco-labels differed greatly from first-world perceptions, as South African consumers have not had as much exposure to eco-labelled products. Consumer awareness and understanding varied significantly between local and international eco-labels. Generally, the number of consumers that have fully adopted eco-labels is low. However, South African consumers were found to have a pro-environmental attitude; many respondents felt that they would be willing to purchase eco-labelled products if they knew more about the eco-label. Improved stakeholder engagement among eco-labelling initiatives, supermarkets and consumers is required to foster better consumer knowledge of eco-labels and promote environmental justice locally.

Bibliography: pages 203-211. / This study focuses special attention on some crucial aspects of 'Native Education' policy during the period 1939-48. It is contended that 'Native Education' cannot be analysed outside its political and economic context. It was an essential aspect of the broader 'Native' policy followed by successive white governments (Provincial and Union) in S.A. before 1948. The study is divided into two parts. Part one provides the economic, political and educational (Native) background of the period 1939-48. Chapter one assesses the political and economic context of 'Native Education' prior to 1939. Chapter two provides an historical analysis of 'Native Education' prior to 1939 and highlights the following crucial issues: (i) the role of the missionary as educator; (ii) the State's interest in industrial education for Africans; (iii) the State's financial provision for 'Native Education'. Part two attempts to uncover aspects of the political orientation of the U.P. Government's 'Native Education' policy (1939-48) and investigates the following issues: (i) why the State provided insufficient financial backing for 'Native Education' when compared with that given to White Education (Chapter five); (ii) the reasons for the introduction of the 1943 School Feeding Scheme for African children; (Chapter six). (iii) the reasons for the State's provision of insufficient technical and vocational training for Africans when compared with that given to whites (Chapter seven). This section also analyses the political ideologies of the U.P. Government and the N.P. Opposition with regard to 'Native Education' (Chapters three and four) as well as the Smuts Government's 'Native' policy and the reaction to this policy (Chapter eight). The study also focuses attention on the House of Assembly Debates (1939-48) relating to the issues examined in Chapters five, six and seven. It is contended that these debates are of paramount importance for an understanding of subsequent policies as they touch on a particularly sensitive area in the field of race relations in South Africa in specific ways.

Our understanding of bird pollination systems has changed dramatically in the last few years. A long-standing paradigm was that hummingbirds and passerine birds select for different nectar properties in flowers (phylogenetic hypothesis). However, specialist passerines, such as sunbirds, have similar nectar preferences to hummingbirds and nectar in plants pollinated by these two bird groups is strongly convergent. Thus, as an alternative to the existing paradigm, it has been argued that the most useful distinction that can be drawn is that between specialist and generalist avian nectarivores (feeding niche hypothesis). This was supported by phylogenetically-controlled analyses that show that nectar in plants pollinated by specialist avian nectarivores (whether hummingbird or passerine) tends to have a lower volume, higher concentration and higher sucrose content than that in plants pollinated by generalist avian nectarivores. The aim of this thesis was to determine if these trends can be explained by the nectar preferences of avian nectarivores, and to determine whether the generalist-specialist dichotomy can be applied to Kniphofia, a largely bird-pollinated African plant genus. This thesis consists of two sections. In the first, I present data from equicaloric choice experiments to determine sugar preferences of both specialist and occasional nectar feeding birds across a range of concentrations. In addition, I determine apparent sugar assimilation efficiencies and concentration preferences for a range of occasional nectar feeding birds. Using Malachite Sunbirds (Nectarinia famosa), Dark-capped bulbuls (Pycnonotus tricolor), Speckled Mousebirds (Colius striatus) and Red-winged Starlings (Onychognathus morio) (plus Village Weavers (Ploceus cucullatus) in an appendix) as representatives of the major groups of nectar feeding birds in South Africa, I show that some differences occur between occasional nectar feeding birds and all specialist nectar feeding birds studied so far. Specialists show a switch from hexose preference at low (5%) concentrations, exhibit no preference at medium concentrations (10-20%) and prefer sucrose or show no preference at high concentrations (25%). However, specialists are unable to maintain energy balance at low concentrations, and always select the higher concentration when given choices within this range. Occasional nectar feeding birds prefer hexose solutions at low and medium concentrations (5 and 10%), but show varied preferences at higher concentrations. Occasional nectar feeding birds are able to maintain energy balance at low concentrations, and either show no concentration preference, or a preference for lower concentrations when given a choice. Occasional nectar feeding birds show a range in ability to digest sucrose, although some species, like the Dark-capped Bulbul, are quite proficient at it. Surprisingly, no significant difference is found between specialist and occasional nectarivores sugar preferences when analysed globally, even when phyllogeny is accounted for. Instead, I found a significant relationship between body size and bird sugar preference at different concentrations, from which I build the body size hypothesis, which I suggest is a better predictor to use than bird diet type (specialist or occasional nectarivores – feeding niche hypothesis). In the second section of the thesis, I examine the associations between plant traits and nectarivore nectar preferences. This section focuses on flower morphology and nectar characteristics in Kniphofia species, and ecotypes within species, pollinated by specialist versus occasional avian nectarivores. I show that apart from sugar type, which appears to be phylogenetically constrained, flower morphology and nectar characteristics appear to diverge according to whether plants are pollinated by generalist or specialist nectar feeding birds. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2006 / Nutrition is a basic human right as well as a prerequisite for the realization of full intellectual and physical potential. This is also stipulated in the South African Constitution and the Bill of rights. The Limpopo Province is known as one of the most poverty and drought stricken provinces in the RSA with a very high rate of unemployment. To alleviate poverty and to improve health and school attendance, the state president enhanced the Primary School Nutrition Programme on 1 September1994 in a number of targeted primary schools according to their poverty level. This study focused on the formative phase of the evaluation of the Primary School Nutrition Programme in the Mogodumo Circuit of the Capricorn District in the Limpopo province. It is a formative phase as it is an ongoing process. Mogodumo circuit is situated ± 56 km, west of Polokwane City, with 90% of the primary schools situated in the rural area. For this study, the researcher employed the probability sampling method in two stages. A simple random sampling of five schools selected was done while the stratified sample was obtained at each of those five selected schools. Through qualitative research, the qualitative data were obtained through a questionnaire, interviews and observation. The final results from the study show that though the learners’ school attendance had improved, they (learners) were eating the food because “beggars are not choosers”. The food they were receiving was of a poor quality, not delicious and not according to the tender specifications. There were no community involvement in the education of their children, unfaithful suppliers and helper mothers (volunteers), principals were forced to sign for the quality of food that was not received, passive participation of the teachers and their involvement in the decision making of the PSNP issues, a lack of facilities such as water, electricity, kitchens and fences. The helper mothers (volunteers) were complaining about the heavy job they were doing without a living wage as they only received a thankyou token of R110-00 per month. The programme was thus functioning in contradiction to rules and policies laid down for it. / Limpopo Department of Education

This dissertation is about the National School Nutrition Programme (NSNP) in South Africa. This Programme was introduced by government in 1994 with the aim of alleviating poverty; unemployment and improving learning capacity of children. Specifically, it is intended to help poor children and to empower poverty-stricken communities, particularly in the rural areas across all the nine provinces. The focus of this study is on the investigation of effectiveness and efficient management of the Programme in the Eastern Cape Province, with specific reference to Mhlontlo District. Mhlontlo district is one of the predominantly rural areas in the province of the Eastern Cape, a remote area characterized by high levels of poverty and unemployment, and low levels of infrastructural developments. Surrounding Schools in the area are also affected by these problems. Learners at these schools are from poor families. It is for this reason that this scheme becomes important as it is most needed and, to effectively and efficiently realise its intended objectives, it must be properly managed. The main theme of the study revolves around effective and efficient service delivery that must be taken as the first priority in the management of NSNP. Factors that contribute to efficiency and effectiveness must be taken into consideration by all stakeholders and are outlined as follows: The aims in this study is to assess the effectiveness of management of the National School Nutrition Programme at Mhlontlo district in the eastern Cape, to identity shortcomings in the management of the Programme and to suggest possible remedies to improve the management of the Programme to effective service delivery. Against the background of the problem statement, the following questions were posited. How can the management of the National School Nutrition Programme with specific reference to Mhlontlo district be enhanced to ensure that its intended objectives are realized? What effect will improved management have on service delivery in the National School Nutrition Programme? And how will adherence to the Batho Pele Principles improve service delivery in schools with regard to the National School Nutrition Programme? The target population in this study was the learners, teachers and community of Schools around Mhlontlo District whose children are being catered for at school as respondents. Statistics of learners who are beneficiaries of this programme were obtained from surrounding Schools. The percentage of the response to the questions led to the results that services are not delivered as effectively as expected. The study concluded by recommendations of what national and provincial department of Education are required to do together with the school, service providers and the community in order to improve service delivery in schools that participate in the NSNP. Finally, the NSNP is for the deprived citizens of South Africa. The onus is on the community of Mhlontlo District, service providers, teachers and education authorities responsible for the NSNP to work together to make the programme effective for advancing the development of young people.

The thesis focuses on the Primary School Nutrition Programme (PSNP), particularly in the Eastern Cape, as a government nutrition and education project, and its failure to achieve its stated goals. The programme experienced problems almost as soon as it was introduced. The press reported incidents of fraud and maladministration and the programme was halted and restarted numerous times. The thesis seeks to offer some insight as to why the government was unable to reach its stated objectives in the implementation phase of the programme. State theory informs the thesis in an attempt to further explain why governments often seem unable to attain their intended goals. The thesis provides an alternative to government development programmes, arguing that NGOs are better equipped to deal with the particular problems that people on the ground experience when dealing with issues like nutritional vulnerability. Operation Hunger provides an excellent case study for how development of this nature ought to occur. The essential argument of the thesis is that there is an inherent tension between what a government's stated intentions is and what, it, in reality, intends to gain from such programmes. It is the contention of this thesis that the Government of National Unity embarked on the PSNP, not to ensure nutritional development for its own sake, but rather to curry favour with its constituents. Operation Hunger, and other organisations like it, provide relief to vulnerable communities with no hidden agenda in mind. Their mandate is solely that they provide assistance. The thesis argues, then, that NGOs have a role in domestic and international politics, that they can make up for or do better, or at least well, things that governments struggle to do.

Lions have recently been introduced to a number of small (<300km²), enclosed reserves in the Eastern Cape Province as a draw-card for tourists. However, there have been few studies of lion behaviour or predator prey interactions within small reserves. Thus the aim of this study is to contribute towards a better understanding of the effects of space on diet and habitat use of re-introduced lions. The research was conducted at two small private reserves, Shamwari and Kwandwe. Kills were mostly large (55%, >120kg), adult (41%) and male (39%) and the five most commonly killed species (kudu, black wildebeest, warthog, bushbuck and Blesbuck) comprised 67.9% of all kills and 67.8% of total biomass consumed. In an attempt to overcome the problem of gaps in the kill lists, a subset of data, which excluded kills more than five days apart, was analyzed and this gave similar results to analysis of the full kill lists. Mean daily intake rates varied annually between 2.26 and 5.23kg.FEQ⁻¹ for the full data set and 4.53 and 1 0.46kg.FEQ⁻¹ for the subset. The difference between estimated (calculated using daily intake rates of 5 and 7.12kg.FEQ⁻¹) and observed offtake for each ungulate species reflected the preference ratings for that species. Analysis of bone marrow indicated that: lions killed ungulates in moderate to good condition; condition of culled animals was lower than that of kills; distal bones could be used in analyses; and that that bones exposed to the environment for at least a week could be used to analyze condition of prey. Home ranges and activity centers ranged from 21.42km² to 73.27km² and 2.7lkm² to 17.47km² respectively, which was smaller than expected from previous studies. Although, lions at K wandwe and Shan1wari preferred different vegetation types, at both reserves they generally occupied areas that were structurally similar to what has previously been reported. Continuous monitoring and analyses of diet, including condition of the prey, and habitat use will provide reserve managers with some of the necessary information to enable them to effectively manage their lion populations and to predict and minimize potential problems.

The Department of Basic Education classifies the NSNP as one of the critical omponents of the government's Programme of Action, which was specifically assigned the responsibility of addressing learners' ability to learn by providing them with nutritious meals. The success of the programme may therefore contribute towards the country's realisation of the Millennium Development Goals which include the reduction of mortality and the eradication of extreme hunger and poverty by 2015 as well as achieving universal primary education. The aim of the National School Nutrition Programme seeks to promote sustainable food production initiatives in all School Nutrition Schools in order to develop skills. It also aims to enhance learning capacity of a learner through feeding and to promote nutrition education in order to improve healthy eating and lifestyles amongst communities. This study seeks to assess the current status in administering the NSNP in selected schools in Peddie, Eastern Cape. Due to the extensive nature of the geographical area of Peddie, this study focused exclusively on 25 schools. For the purpose of this study, a quantitative approach was employed through a questionnaire constructed to obtain the perceptions of the sample group. The responses from the statements in the questionnaire were analysed by a Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University registered statistician. In the last chapter a number of recommendations are stated to aid in improving the current administering status of the National School Nutrition Programme.

Health and education are two important aspects of human capital and form the basis of an individual’s economic productivity in any country. In South Africa, hunger and malnutrition continue to hamper the health, quality of life and survival of school going children such that some children drop- out of school due to these socio-economic problems (Tomlinson,2007:2). The introduction of previous School Feeding Schemes to address the question of hunger and poverty within schools was mostly left in the 1980’s and 1990’s to charitable and Non-Governmental Organizations such as Operation Hunger and ITHUBA (Swartz, 2009:38). According to Perlman (1993:14) South Africa’s track record of child deaths was more than double that of any other country of similar income levels worldwide, due to the apartheid government deserting its responsibility of feeding the nation. The White Paper for the Transformation of Health System (1997: 125) had also stated that improving nutrition within the rural schools is an imperative and a sound economic investment which is politically rewarding. Nelson Mandela (1996:8) once said “Our children are our nation’s future. Prospects for development are seriously undermined by the kind of large scale deprivation of children that South Africa has experienced. On the other hand investing in their health, nutrition and education not only improves our children’s quality of life – the gains reverberate into the future generations. ” From April 1994, through the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) the Government of National Unity under the leadership of Dr. Nelson Mandela identified the area of school feeding as a policy prime concern in redressing the imbalances and inequities of the past governments. Another initiative to redress the inequities of the past, was through the programme of Poverty Reduction which manifested itself in lack of income, lack of education and skills, lack of access to services and amenities and lack of ownership of land and housing (Public Service Commission, 2007.

The National School Nutrition Programme (NSNP) is a poverty alleviation strategy, which was introduced in 1994 by the Government of South Africa as part of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). Studies of the Food and Agriculture Organisation, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) and the World Health Organisation (WHO), show that hunger, nutrition, and poverty, are strongly correlated. The same studies note that in the world as a whole, hunger impacts negatively on Millennium Development Goals, namely universal primary education, gender equality, child mortality, maternal health, management of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Tuberculosis (TB) and malaria, and environmental stability. Hunger, specifically, has been shown to contribute to reduced school attendance, impaired cognitive capacity, high child mortality rates, high maternal death rates, increased migratory labour that increases the spread of HIV, and the unsustainable use of forest lands and resources (South African Department of Education, 2004: 3).” The National School Nutrition Programme aims at providing meals to mostly the needy learners, who come from poor families. Good food provides energy for the brain. The meals that are provided at schools are, therefore, intended to give energy for mental and physical activities for the body and brain to function, and to make learners alert and receptive during lessons (South African Province of the Eastern Cape Department of Education, 2008: 2). Currently, meals in South African Schools are provided to all learners in Quintile 1, 2 and 3 public primary schools from Grades R to 7. The programme was extended to Quintile 1 secondary schools in April 2009. All Quintile 2 and 3 public secondary schools will be included in 2010 and 2011 respectively (South African Eastern Cape Province Department of Education, 2008: 3). To collect information for research purposes, the researcher used a qualitative approach. This approach, which is used by the researcher, seeks to identify the impediments that pose challenges to effective and efficient implementation of the NSNP in the King William’s Town District of the Department of Education in Province of the Eastern Cape. The sample covers two rural schools participating in the NSNP in the King William’s Town District, namely Fort Murray Junior and Senior Primary School, and Qongqotha Junior and Senior Primary School. In each school, the principal, the chairperson of the School Governing Body, the teacher in charge of the NSNP, and Grade 7 learners, formed part of the sample of the study. Added to these participants have been the Service Provider and the District Coordinator of the NSNP in the King William’s Town District. The researcher chose these two schools that are locally based (within a 10km radius from the researcher’s place of residence) for convenience purposes, in terms of cutting down on travelling costs. The empirical findings were analysed and interpreted, and in presenting the findings, special reference to the research question is made, namely: “What are the challenges that impede the successful implementation of the National School Nutrition Programme in the King William’s Town District of the Eastern Cape Department of Education?” The recommendations reflected heavily on the purpose of the study, namely, that the Department of Education in the Eastern Cape has not managed the NSNP efficiently and effectively. The findings of this study reflect that there are still challenges that continue to plague the NSNP after seven years of the inception of the programme by Department of Education. The empirical findings of this study have revealed that the challenges confronting the implementation of the NSNP could be attributed to poor governance by the Department of Education officials. Some pockets of excellence of the NSNP are noted in the study. Recommendations are made to mitigate the problem situation.