Purpose: There is a growing body of evidence that income indicators and racial compositions of urban neighborhoods mediate access to food stores and healthy foods. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there were any differences in access (availability, quality and cost) to fruits and vegetables between two racially homogeneous regions, one considered low-income and the other middle-income, in the City of Atlanta, Georgia. Methods: This was a cross-sectional, exploratory study. A convenience sample of 56 food stores (convenience, grocery and supermarket) was assessed over a three-week period. The stores were surveyed using an instrument developed to capture availabilities of fresh items, the quality of these and the ability of the food stores to meet the Thrifty Food Plan (TFP) 2006 fruit and vegetable categories for a reference family of four. Each category had constraints (variety and weights), and lowest-cost items were identified to meet these. Store to 10,000 population ratios and percent median income required to fulfill the TFP fruits and vegetables were calculated. Fisher’s Exact Tests and Chi Square were used to analyze categorical data. ANOVA analyses were used to determine differences in costs between the regions for the complete TFP fruit and vegetable basket and for price differences for each fruit and vegetable category among stores within each region. Results: The food store to 10,000 ratios were 5.8 and 3.7, respectively, for the low-income region and middle-income region. The low-income region grocery store ratio was 2.7, compared to 0.9 for the middle-income. Access to fresh items, quality of these and numbers of stores meeting each category and the complete TFP basket were not significantly different between the regions. The low-income region had a significantly greater number of stores that met whole fruits (p=0.03) and the variety constraint for other vegetables, which was four types (p=0.05). The TFP category weights were difficult to achieve with most categories in deficits. The majority of the lowest-cost items identified were canned fruits and vegetables. There were no significant differences between the regions for the costs of each category. The low-income region had a significantly greater number of stores charging more than the mean ($52.91±14.85) for the complete TFP fruit and vegetable basket (p=0.04). Store types and not income was the significant factor contributing to the price differences between the regions for the complete TFP basket. Within region analyses indicated significant price differences for several categories among the store types. Typically, convenience stores and/or grocery stores charged significantly more for certain categories than did supermarkets. Conclusion: There were few differences in overall availability, quality and category comparisons. The low-income region potentially pays more for the TFP 2006 fruits and vegetables for a family of four. Cost has been cited as a barrier to complying with healthy diets. More research needs to be undertaken to aid in policy development in consideration of healthy food cost implications for low-income families. Further education efforts are required to guide low-income families on how the TFP can be met optimally on a budget.

O estudo envolveu dois experimentos com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de estratégias de alimentação sobre o estresse oxidativo, consumo, metabólitos sanguineos, a evolução da produção e composição do leite de vacas de diferentes composições raciais durante o período de transição. Estudo 1:Foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com medidas repetidas no tempo e 24 vacas da raça Jersey foram distribuídas nos tratamentos controle - sem a adição de extratos vegetais (CON), adição de 10 gramas/dia de extrato de orégano (EO) e adição de 5,0 g/dia de extrato de chá verde (ECV).O fornecimento de extrato de orégano melhorou a eficiência alimentare a produção de leite em relação ao extrato de chá verde. A adição de extratos vegetais na dieta reduziu o radical livre(ROS) DCFE, contribuindo para redução do estresse oxidativo. Estudo 2:Foi utilizado o delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado, em arranjo fatorial 2x2 (duas composições raciais e dois planos nutricionais no pré parto) com seis repetiçõese medidas repetidas no tempo. Durante 21 dias pré parto, novilhas Girolando F1 (½ Holandês ½ Gir) e Holandês receberam a mesma dieta total misturada (TMR), variando somente a quantidade ofertada (plano nutricional): 1,69 ou1,89% do peso corporal(PC) de matéria seca No pós parto, os animais receberam dietas semelhantes formuladas conforme as recomendações do NRC (prevista para raça Holandês). O plano nutricional de 1,89% do PC aumentou a concentração de ácidos graxos não esterificados (AGNE) no pré parto,a concentração de glicose no pós parto e o estresse oxidativo durante todo o período experimental em relação ao plano nutricional 1,69% do PC. Os animais da raça Girolando F1apresentaram os maior ECC durante todo o período experimental, menor ingestão de matéria seca no pré e pós parto e menor consumo de energia metabólica no pós parto;aumento da concentração de creatinina e AGNE no pré parto e maior concentração de glicose no pós parto; menor produção de leite, menor concentração de lactose em relação a animais Holandês.Diferenças metabólicas como as concentrações de AGNE, creatinina e glicose entre as composições raciais podem ter influenciado as variáveis indicativas de estresse oxidativo. O plano nutricional 1,89% do PC durante o período seconão deve ser oferecido, independentemente da composição racial. Animais Girolando F1 devem ser manejados de forma distinta de animais Holandês durante o período de transição, pois apresentam diferenças de consumo e metabolismo. / The study was performed based on two trialsand aimed of evaluating the effect of feeding strategies on oxidative stress, consumption, blood metabolites, milk production and milk composition of cows of different racial compositions during the transition period. Trial 1: we used a completely randomized design, with repeated measures along the time, where 24 Jersey cows were distributed in two diets: control - without the addition of plant extracts (CON), addition of 10 grams per day of oregano extract (OE) and addition of 5.0 grams per day of green tea extract (GTE). The supply of OE improvedfeed conversion during the postpartum period and milk production compared to GTE. The addition of plant extracts in the diet reduces the free radical (ROS) DCFE, contributing to the reduction of oxidative stress. Trial 2: A completely randomized experiment design was used, in a 2x2 factorial arrangement (two racial compositions and two nutritional plans in prepartum), with time-repeated measures (during days), with four treatments and six repetitions (heifers) in each treatment. For 21 day before of prepartum, nuluparous females Girolando F1 (½ Holstein ½ Gir) and Holstein received the same total mixed diet (TMR), varying only the amount offered (nutritional plan): 1.69 and 1.89% of (BW) of dry matter. In the postpartum the animals received the same basal diet formulated according to the recommendations of the NRC (predicted for Holstein) The nutritional plane of 1.89% showed a higher concentration of calcium and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in the prepartum, higher concentration of glucose in the postpartum period and greater oxidative stress throughout the experimental period in relation to the nutritional plane 1,69% of the PC. The animals Girolando F1 had the highest ECC during the experimental period, lower intake of dry matter in the pre and postpartum, and lower metabolic energy consumption in the postpartum period; increased creatinine concentration and NEFA in prepartum and higher postpartum glucose concentration; lower milk yield, lower lactose concentration in relation to Hostein animals. Metabolic differences such as the concentrations of NEFA, creatinine and glucose among racial compositions may have influenced the variables indicative of oxidative stress. The nutritional plan 1.89%CP supply during the dry period should not be indicated. Girolando F1 animals should be handled differently from Holstein animals during the transition period, as they exhibit differences in intake and metabolism.

O estudo envolveu dois experimentos com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de estratégias de alimentação sobre o estresse oxidativo, consumo, metabólitos sanguineos, a evolução da produção e composição do leite de vacas de diferentes composições raciais durante o período de transição. Estudo 1:Foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com medidas repetidas no tempo e 24 vacas da raça Jersey foram distribuídas nos tratamentos controle - sem a adição de extratos vegetais (CON), adição de 10 gramas/dia de extrato de orégano (EO) e adição de 5,0 g/dia de extrato de chá verde (ECV).O fornecimento de extrato de orégano melhorou a eficiência alimentare a produção de leite em relação ao extrato de chá verde. A adição de extratos vegetais na dieta reduziu o radical livre(ROS) DCFE, contribuindo para redução do estresse oxidativo. Estudo 2:Foi utilizado o delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado, em arranjo fatorial 2x2 (duas composições raciais e dois planos nutricionais no pré parto) com seis repetiçõese medidas repetidas no tempo. Durante 21 dias pré parto, novilhas Girolando F1 (½ Holandês ½ Gir) e Holandês receberam a mesma dieta total misturada (TMR), variando somente a quantidade ofertada (plano nutricional): 1,69 ou1,89% do peso corporal(PC) de matéria seca No pós parto, os animais receberam dietas semelhantes formuladas conforme as recomendações do NRC (prevista para raça Holandês). O plano nutricional de 1,89% do PC aumentou a concentração de ácidos graxos não esterificados (AGNE) no pré parto,a concentração de glicose no pós parto e o estresse oxidativo durante todo o período experimental em relação ao plano nutricional 1,69% do PC. Os animais da raça Girolando F1apresentaram os maior ECC durante todo o período experimental, menor ingestão de matéria seca no pré e pós parto e menor consumo de energia metabólica no pós parto;aumento da concentração de creatinina e AGNE no pré parto e maior concentração de glicose no pós parto; menor produção de leite, menor concentração de lactose em relação a animais Holandês.Diferenças metabólicas como as concentrações de AGNE, creatinina e glicose entre as composições raciais podem ter influenciado as variáveis indicativas de estresse oxidativo. O plano nutricional 1,89% do PC durante o período seconão deve ser oferecido, independentemente da composição racial. Animais Girolando F1 devem ser manejados de forma distinta de animais Holandês durante o período de transição, pois apresentam diferenças de consumo e metabolismo. / The study was performed based on two trialsand aimed of evaluating the effect of feeding strategies on oxidative stress, consumption, blood metabolites, milk production and milk composition of cows of different racial compositions during the transition period. Trial 1: we used a completely randomized design, with repeated measures along the time, where 24 Jersey cows were distributed in two diets: control - without the addition of plant extracts (CON), addition of 10 grams per day of oregano extract (OE) and addition of 5.0 grams per day of green tea extract (GTE). The supply of OE improvedfeed conversion during the postpartum period and milk production compared to GTE. The addition of plant extracts in the diet reduces the free radical (ROS) DCFE, contributing to the reduction of oxidative stress. Trial 2: A completely randomized experiment design was used, in a 2x2 factorial arrangement (two racial compositions and two nutritional plans in prepartum), with time-repeated measures (during days), with four treatments and six repetitions (heifers) in each treatment. For 21 day before of prepartum, nuluparous females Girolando F1 (½ Holstein ½ Gir) and Holstein received the same total mixed diet (TMR), varying only the amount offered (nutritional plan): 1.69 and 1.89% of (BW) of dry matter. In the postpartum the animals received the same basal diet formulated according to the recommendations of the NRC (predicted for Holstein) The nutritional plane of 1.89% showed a higher concentration of calcium and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in the prepartum, higher concentration of glucose in the postpartum period and greater oxidative stress throughout the experimental period in relation to the nutritional plane 1,69% of the PC. The animals Girolando F1 had the highest ECC during the experimental period, lower intake of dry matter in the pre and postpartum, and lower metabolic energy consumption in the postpartum period; increased creatinine concentration and NEFA in prepartum and higher postpartum glucose concentration; lower milk yield, lower lactose concentration in relation to Hostein animals. Metabolic differences such as the concentrations of NEFA, creatinine and glucose among racial compositions may have influenced the variables indicative of oxidative stress. The nutritional plan 1.89%CP supply during the dry period should not be indicated. Girolando F1 animals should be handled differently from Holstein animals during the transition period, as they exhibit differences in intake and metabolism.

O estudo envolveu dois experimentos com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de estratégias de alimentação sobre o estresse oxidativo, consumo, metabólitos sanguineos, a evolução da produção e composição do leite de vacas de diferentes composições raciais durante o período de transição. Estudo 1:Foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com medidas repetidas no tempo e 24 vacas da raça Jersey foram distribuídas nos tratamentos controle - sem a adição de extratos vegetais (CON), adição de 10 gramas/dia de extrato de orégano (EO) e adição de 5,0 g/dia de extrato de chá verde (ECV).O fornecimento de extrato de orégano melhorou a eficiência alimentare a produção de leite em relação ao extrato de chá verde. A adição de extratos vegetais na dieta reduziu o radical livre(ROS) DCFE, contribuindo para redução do estresse oxidativo. Estudo 2:Foi utilizado o delineamento experimental inteiramente casualizado, em arranjo fatorial 2x2 (duas composições raciais e dois planos nutricionais no pré parto) com seis repetiçõese medidas repetidas no tempo. Durante 21 dias pré parto, novilhas Girolando F1 (½ Holandês ½ Gir) e Holandês receberam a mesma dieta total misturada (TMR), variando somente a quantidade ofertada (plano nutricional): 1,69 ou1,89% do peso corporal(PC) de matéria seca No pós parto, os animais receberam dietas semelhantes formuladas conforme as recomendações do NRC (prevista para raça Holandês). O plano nutricional de 1,89% do PC aumentou a concentração de ácidos graxos não esterificados (AGNE) no pré parto,a concentração de glicose no pós parto e o estresse oxidativo durante todo o período experimental em relação ao plano nutricional 1,69% do PC. Os animais da raça Girolando F1apresentaram os maior ECC durante todo o período experimental, menor ingestão de matéria seca no pré e pós parto e menor consumo de energia metabólica no pós parto;aumento da concentração de creatinina e AGNE no pré parto e maior concentração de glicose no pós parto; menor produção de leite, menor concentração de lactose em relação a animais Holandês.Diferenças metabólicas como as concentrações de AGNE, creatinina e glicose entre as composições raciais podem ter influenciado as variáveis indicativas de estresse oxidativo. O plano nutricional 1,89% do PC durante o período seconão deve ser oferecido, independentemente da composição racial. Animais Girolando F1 devem ser manejados de forma distinta de animais Holandês durante o período de transição, pois apresentam diferenças de consumo e metabolismo. / The study was performed based on two trialsand aimed of evaluating the effect of feeding strategies on oxidative stress, consumption, blood metabolites, milk production and milk composition of cows of different racial compositions during the transition period. Trial 1: we used a completely randomized design, with repeated measures along the time, where 24 Jersey cows were distributed in two diets: control - without the addition of plant extracts (CON), addition of 10 grams per day of oregano extract (OE) and addition of 5.0 grams per day of green tea extract (GTE). The supply of OE improvedfeed conversion during the postpartum period and milk production compared to GTE. The addition of plant extracts in the diet reduces the free radical (ROS) DCFE, contributing to the reduction of oxidative stress. Trial 2: A completely randomized experiment design was used, in a 2x2 factorial arrangement (two racial compositions and two nutritional plans in prepartum), with time-repeated measures (during days), with four treatments and six repetitions (heifers) in each treatment. For 21 day before of prepartum, nuluparous females Girolando F1 (½ Holstein ½ Gir) and Holstein received the same total mixed diet (TMR), varying only the amount offered (nutritional plan): 1.69 and 1.89% of (BW) of dry matter. In the postpartum the animals received the same basal diet formulated according to the recommendations of the NRC (predicted for Holstein) The nutritional plane of 1.89% showed a higher concentration of calcium and non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in the prepartum, higher concentration of glucose in the postpartum period and greater oxidative stress throughout the experimental period in relation to the nutritional plane 1,69% of the PC. The animals Girolando F1 had the highest ECC during the experimental period, lower intake of dry matter in the pre and postpartum, and lower metabolic energy consumption in the postpartum period; increased creatinine concentration and NEFA in prepartum and higher postpartum glucose concentration; lower milk yield, lower lactose concentration in relation to Hostein animals. Metabolic differences such as the concentrations of NEFA, creatinine and glucose among racial compositions may have influenced the variables indicative of oxidative stress. The nutritional plan 1.89%CP supply during the dry period should not be indicated. Girolando F1 animals should be handled differently from Holstein animals during the transition period, as they exhibit differences in intake and metabolism.

Master of Science / Department of Human Nutrition / Mary Meck Higgins / Because of the ever-changing nature of the economy and the food environment, research as recent as 2010 may not be relevant to today’s discussion on food insecurity, food deserts, obesity rates, and nutritional quality in the U.S. population’s diet. Today, people of low socioeconomic status in the U.S. are at risk for overweight, obesity, and chronic illnesses such as type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and certain cancers. In this report, I investigate published research about low-income populations in the U.S. relative to the food environment and describe implications for healthcare professionals implementing interventions with these populations, discussed in the following categories: Dietary Intake Quality and Socioeconomic Status; Food Insecurity; Barriers to Quality Food Access in the U.S. Food Environment; Communities Alleviating Food Insecurity; Food-Related Perceptions, Attitudes, and Behaviors; Homelessness and Food-Related Behaviors; Why Do People Buy What They Buy?; Nutrition Assistance Programs and Policies; Current U.S. Food Costs; and Comparing the Nutritional Value Versus Price of Foods. Although the literature on the subject of low-income diet quality is thorough, much of it needs to be updated with current data on food prices, food environments, and U.S. diet quality. For this purpose, I compiled the most recent data from the National Bureau of Labor & Statistics on food prices to discuss the elevated food prices of healthful foods as opposed to less healthful foods. I also created a one-month menu based on the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Thrifty Food Plan budget allowance in order to follow a healthful diet in this harsh economic climate utilizing the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010 and the Affordable Nutrients Index.