Master of Public Health / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Katherine Stenske / Over the past few decades, animal and public health professionals have become increasingly concerned about the global animal population’s vulnerability to Transboundary Animal Diseases (TADs). Through analysis of the lessons learned by the United Kingdom (UK), Taiwan, and Egypt in responding to FMD outbreaks in their countries, it becomes apparent that even with response plans in place at the time of an outbreak, problems still arose as the outbreaks progressed. To better understand why these deviations from the planned course occur, the concept of “disconnects” in the various “domains” of TAD emergency preparedness and response were explored for the United States (U.S.). Particular emphasis was placed on issues related to the collaboration and cooperation between the federal and state levels of government. The domains of communication, knowledge, and resourcing were selected to be analyzed due to their importance in TAD emergency outbreak preparedness and response. The research questions this thesis explores concern three domains of TAD emergency preparedness and response that experience disconnects between federal and state levels of government. They also explore how these disconnects affect Food and Agriculture Security in the U.S. Three different methods were used to research these topics. Literature reviews of lessons learned and after action reports from TAD outbreak exercises and real events were conducted. Direct observations of the author’s experiences at conferences, seminars, and training events were also included. Finally, personal interviews were conducted with Food and Agriculture Security experts. Through this analysis, numerous disconnects emerged in each of the domains. Several disconnects traverse all three domains. These disconnects related to laboratory collaboration with the federal government, the process of declaring a federal emergency, and the roles and responsibilities of individuals and groups involved in TAD outbreak preparedness and response. Overall, the disconnects affect the ability of state and federal governments to rapidly respond to and coordinate response efforts. This affects Food and Agriculture Security by compromising the safety, security, and ongoing operation of the food and agriculture sector. Further study will be needed to alleviate these disconnects so that better cooperation and collaboration can occur between federal and state levels of government.

Master of Science / Department of Industrial & Manufacturing Systems Engineering / Jessica L. Heier Stamm / Communication is an integral part of emergency response, and improving the information dissemination network for crisis communication can save time, resources, and lives. This thesis focuses specifically on emergency response to a foreign animal disease (FAD) outbreak, an incident in which an animal disease that is not active domestically is introduced and being spreading in the U.S. In a FAD outbreak, timeliness of detection and response are critical. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease, a particularly significant FAD, could cripple the agriculture economy and every hour of poor communication could result in the loss of thousands of animals. Improving this and other such crisis communication networks is of high importance. There is a comparatively large amount of prior research that critiques past catastrophic events but very little that aims to quantitatively improve such networks. This research uses communication data from a FAD response exercise in Kansas to develop a reliable network model, contributing a general method for creating an information dissemination network from empirical communication data. The thesis then introduces a simulated annealing heuristic to alter the network structure, reducing the overall information transmission time by almost 90%. Both the application of simulated annealing in network design and the use of discrete event simulation to calculate the heuristic objective function are new contributions to the field of crisis communication and emergency response. This work begins by extracting data from communication logs, grouping the large numbers of stakeholders into more manageable clusters, and developing a simulation model framework that accurately depicts the flow of information in the actual network. Then a simulated annealing heuristic is used to alter the network structure. The goal is to identify an alternative network structure in which the time for information to reach all response participants is minimized. The resultant network structures are analyzed to reveal observations and recommendations for FAD response communication. This research finds that not only can such a network be improved significantly, but the quantitative results support the qualitative observations from early in the data extraction process. This paper adds original methods to the literature and opens the door for future quantitative work in the area of crisis communication and emergency response.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology / Michael W. Sanderson / The last outbreak for Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in the United States (U.S.) was in 1929. Since that time the U.S. has not had any exposure to the disease or vaccination, creating a very susceptible livestock population. The central U.S. has a large susceptible livestock population including cattle, swine, sheep, and goats. The impact of FMD in the U.S. would be devastating. Simulation modeling is the only avenue available to study the potential impacts of an introduction in the U.S. Simulation models are dependent on accurate estimates of the frequency and distance distribution of contacts between livestock operations to provide valid model results for planning and decision making including the relative importance of different control strategies. Due to limited data on livestock movement rates and distance distribution for contacts a survey was conducted of livestock producers in Colorado and Kansas. These data fill a need for region specific contact rates to provide parameters for modeling a foreign animal disease. FMD outbreaks often require quarantine, depopulation and disposal of whole herds in order to prevent the continued spread of the disease. Experts were included in a Delphi survey and round table discussion to critically evaluate the feasibility of depopulating a large feedlot. No clearly acceptable method of rapidly depopulating a large feedlot was identified. Participants agreed that regardless of the method used for depopulation of cattle in a large feedlot, it would be very difficult to complete the task quickly, humanely, and be able to dispose of the carcasses in a timely fashion. Simulation models were developed to assess the impact of livestock herd types and vaccination on FMD outbreaks in the central U.S. using the North American Animal Disease Spread Model (NAADSM), a spatially explicit, stochastic state-transition simulation model. Simulation scenarios with large vaccination zones had decreased outbreak length and number of herds destroyed. Vaccination did not provide additional benefit to control compared to depopulation alone when biosecurity and movement controls were high, however the ability to achieve high levels of biosecurity and movement control may be limited by labor and animal welfare concerns.

Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), caused by Mycoplasma mycoides mycoides small colony (MmmSC), is a devastating respiratory disease of cattle in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. Little investigation has been done on molecular disease pathogenesis and host response beyond soluble cytokine detection. This study developed and characterized models for three strains of MmmSC of varying severity. Strains used were Gladysdale, Ondangwa and Shawawa. Samples of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, bronchial biopsy, nasal epithelial cells and blood were obtained prior to and at weekly time points post-infection. Microarray analysis of RNA extracted from samples revealed host cellular pathways and genes important in the pathogenesis of CBPP, including multiple immune system and inflammatory response pathways. A number of pathways whose influence on disease pathogenesis was not immediately clear were also activated, including pathways involved in amino acid synthesis, fat metabolism, and endocrine hormone responses. Microarray results were confirmed with real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of selected genes. Comparative RT-PCR analysis of selected genes between the three strains of MmmSC revealed genes possibly responsible for differential strain virulence, including interleukins 1B, 6, 8, and 18 and the gene nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B cells inhibitor, alpha (NFKBIA). A similar analysis of selected genes between survivors and nonsurvivors of the virulent Gladysdale strain of MmmSC suggested genes involved in survival, including interleukin 8, calmodulin 2 (CALM2), and NFKBIA. Avenues of additional study were identified.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Raymond R. R. Rowland / Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) is an enveloped, positive strand RNA virus, and member of the genus Pestivirus. It is a highly infectious and transmissible swine pathogen that threatens the global swine industry. The United States has been free of CSFV since 1977, however, monitoring the millions of domestic and feral pigs present in the US puts a significant strain on national surveillance efforts. There are no validated diagnostic techniques that can simultaneously sample multiple pigs (i.e. all pigs in a pen or barn). Similarly, there are no validated serological assays that can quickly test for CSFV without cross-reacting with other pestiviruses. The purpose of the first study was to establish a moderate CSFV-infectious model and determine how a single oral fluid sample from a pen of pigs can function as a diagnostic sample for detecting CSFV. Oral fluid (OF) and serum samples were collected from 10 pigs experimentally infected with CSFV Paderborn strain. Using RT-PCR, CSFV was detected in OF on 8 days post infection (dpi), and in the serum of one pig on 6 dpi. A single OF sample can, therefore, take the place of 10 serum samples to detect CSFV in a population. In a second study, monoclonal antibodies reactive to CSFV glycoproteins were generated in mice immunized with recombinant E2 and Erns antigens. Five E2-specific clones and two Erns-specific clones showed reactivity to CSFV-infected. Epitope mapping of the E2 clones showed that all reacted with the N-terminal portion of E2; a region highly variable among pestiviruses. Together with OF sampling, monoclonal antibodies can be used to develop new tools for improving CSF surveillance in large swine populations.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Animal Sciences and Industry / Curtis Kastner / The U.S. agriculture industry is diverse and dynamic, plays a vital role in the nation’s economy, and serves as a critical component in providing the global food supply. Agriculture has and always will be susceptible to threats such as pests, disease, and weather, but it is also threatened by intentional acts of agroterrorism. One specific area of concern is foreign animal diseases (FAD) and the danger these diseases create for the U.S. livestock industry. Whether a disease outbreak is intentional or accidental, it could devastate animal agriculture and the food infrastructure and have a lasting impact on state, national, and global economies. One of the most economically devastating diseases that raise fear and anxiety in the livestock industry is foot and mouth disease (FMD). A number of administrative, regulatory, and legislative actions have been implemented at state and federal levels designed to protect the agriculture industry and to prevent, prepare for, and respond to an accidental or intentional introduction of an FAD. However, the consistency, clarity, and long-term commitment of these policy approaches remains in question. Effective policy decisions require a multidisciplinary approach that consider and balance science, economics, social factors, and political realities. A significant number of policy analysis tools exist and have been applied to animal emergency scenarios but few actually address the complexity of these policy dilemmas and provide information to policymakers in a format designed to help them make better decisions. Policy development needs to take a more multidisciplinary approach and better tools are needed to help decision makers determine the best policy choices. This dissertation analyzes three FAD policy dilemmas: mass euthanasia and depopulation, carcass disposal, and vaccination. Policy tools are developed to address the multidisciplinary nature of these issues while providing the information necessary to decision makers in a simple and useful format.

The introduction of FMD into the US would have serious economic and societal effects on the livelihoods and sustainability of affected livestock producers. Livestock producers serve as an important line of defense in both detecting an introduction of FMD as well, helping to prevent disease spread. However, due to the complexity of moral, social, and economic issues surrounding the control of highly contagious diseases, producer cooperation during an outbreak may not be assured. This study was conducted using a mixed-methods approach, including qualitative analysis of interviews and quantitative analysis of a postal survey, in order to explore the factors likely to influence producer cooperation in FMD detection and control in Texas. Reporting of cattle with clinical signs of FMD in the absence of an outbreak was related to producers´ beliefs about the consequences of reporting, beliefs about what other producers would do, trust in agricultural agencies, and their perception of the risk posed by FMD. During a hypothetical outbreak, intentions to report were determined by beliefs about the consequences of reporting, and perception of the risk posed by FMD. Intentions to gather and hold cattle when requested during an outbreak were determined by beliefs about the consequences of gathering and holding, beliefs about barriers to gathering and holding, trust in other producers, and perception of the risk posed by FMD. Compliance with animal movement restrictions was determined by experiential attitudes, beliefs about the availability of feed, space, and disinfection procedures, beliefs about what other producers would do, and perception of the risk posed by FMD. Recommendations for improving producer cooperation include targeting specific beliefs in both planning and communication, increasing transparency in the post-reporting process, planning for and communicating plans for maintaining business continuity in order to better inform risk perception, and partnering with organizations to ensure sustained and meaningful communication that supports trust between producers within the affected agricultural community.