Stand structure and composition of pyric oak barrens communities were shaped by natural and anthropogenic fire disturbance regimes. Due to fire suppression and land use changes, oak barrens have become rare. In 1963, a study was implemented to evaluate the restorative effects of annual and five year periodic fire on an “oak barrens” hardwood forest at the University of Tennessee Forest Resources Research and Education Center near Tullahoma, TN. The initial study was a randomized block design and analyzed the effects of short-term prescribed fire on hardwood reproduction, herbaceous vegetation, fuel loading, and soil characteristics. Since inception, additional studies of short-term and long-term effects of continual prescribed fire on various components of the ecosystem have been conducted. In 2005, a follow-up study was conducted to evaluate the effects of long-term prescribed fire on stand dynamics, wildlife habitat structure, and small mammal populations. Stand structure and development were documented and treatment differences analyzed. The effects of annual prescribed fire on small mammal abundance and habitat characteristics were compared across treatments at 3 intervals, pre-burn, postburn, and end of season using repeated measures mixed models ANOVA. Predicting small mammal abundance using habitat characteristics was performed using multiple linear regression with stepwise selection. Annual and 5-year periodic burning for 42 years decreased canopy cover and increased vertical and horizontal understory structure. Regeneration mortality was high for both burn treatments and recruitment was unsustainably low. The 5-year periodic treatment was the most structurally diverse and had the highest small mammal abundance and diversity. Three models for small mammal abundance had one temporally-related variable as the most significant: percent cover of vines. Woody height, percent cover of forbs, and percent cover of bunch grasses were also significant variables. Long-term annual and 5-year periodic prescribed fire does not restore oak barrens to historical accounts of the area and is not sustainable. The amount of overstory oak trees continues to decline with continuous burning. A period of time without burning is required for ingrowth to become established in the overstory and be large enough to withstand burning.

There is growing interest in the reforestation of surface mined lands for the production of valuable forest products and creation of quality wildlife habitat. These objectives can be met by planting native woody and herbaceous species on reclaimed surface mines. However, in this region, many of the common ground cover species used to reduce erosion, compete aggressively with tree seedlings, preventing successful establishment. A research project was designed with two main objectives: to investigate the growth and survival of tree seedlings across different herbaceous ground cover treatments, and to identify the relationship between the growth and function of tree seedlings and microsite variables. Five tree species, native to the eastern hardwood forest surrounding the mine site, were planted in 2005. They are: yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), and Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). Five different ground cover treatments were applied within four replicated planting areas. Two treatments consisted of two different native warm season grass mixes, two were standard reclamation mixes, and one was an unseeded control. Growth and survival, seedling transpiration rate, light measurements, soil respiration, groundcover biomass, and soil chemical properties were measured and analyzed. Survival was significantly different across tree species, with sugar maple having the best overall survival and yellow-poplar the poorest. Seedling survival tended to be greatest within the native warm season grass treatments; however growth rates were variable between all treatments. Seedling survival and growth was related to the amount of herbaceous cover suggesting that tree species react differently to the conditions associated with the surrounding level of herbaceous cover. Moderate ground cover resulted in the best survival, while bare ground or full cover demonstrated the poorest survival rates for northern red oak and eastern redbud. Sugar maple transpiration rate was significantly greater in the moderate (50-75%) cover class during the second growing season. Soil chemical concentrations differed significantly between years, but not between treatments. Soil respiration significantly increased during the two years of this study. The results suggest that moderate herbaceous cover is advantageous for the establishment tree seedlings.

There is growing interest in the reforestation of surface mined lands for the production of valuable forest products and creation of quality wildlife habitat. These objectives can be met by planting native woody and herbaceous species on reclaimed surface mines. However, in this region, many of the common ground cover species used to reduce erosion, compete aggressively with tree seedlings, preventing successful establishment. A research project was designed with two main objectives: to investigate the growth and survival of tree seedlings across different herbaceous ground cover treatments, and to identify the relationship between the growth and function of tree seedlings and microsite variables. Five tree species, native to the eastern hardwood forest surrounding the mine site, were planted in 2005. They are: yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), and Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). Five different ground cover treatments were applied within four replicated planting areas. Two treatments consisted of two different native warm season grass mixes, two were standard reclamation mixes, and one was an unseeded control. Growth and survival, seedling transpiration rate, light measurements, soil respiration, groundcover biomass, and soil chemical properties were measured and analyzed. Survival was significantly different across tree species, with sugar maple having the best overall survival and yellow-poplar the poorest. Seedling survival tended to be greatest within the native warm season grass treatments; however growth rates were variable between all treatments. Seedling survival and growth was related to the amount of herbaceous cover suggesting that tree species react differently to the conditions associated with the surrounding level of herbaceous cover. Moderate ground cover resulted in the best survival, while bare ground or full cover demonstrated the poorest survival rates for northern red oak and eastern redbud. Sugar maple transpiration rate was significantly greater in the moderate (50-75%) cover class during the second growing season. Soil chemical concentrations differed significantly between years, but not between treatments. Soil respiration significantly increased during the two years of this study. The results suggest that moderate herbaceous cover is advantageous for the establishment tree seedlings.

Three surface mine spoil areas in East Tennessee were selected for testing the influence of the State reclamation requirements and selected supplementary treatments on the survival and growth of pines recommended for planting on various sites. A high elevation (2,800 feet) test near Caryville, Tennessee, was discarded because of poor survival of white pine and site modification by contractors working in the area. Fertilizer tests on two established loblolly pine plantations, one on new and the other on old spoil from mining the Sewanee coal seam near Cagle, Tennessee (1,850 feet), indicated that N additions of both 50 and 100 pounds per acre increased growth; response duration appeared to increase when P was added. On the older spoil liming appeared to decrease response to N, especially at 4 tons per acre (State requirement). On new spoil the greatest growth was in plots receiving N with 2 tons of lime per acre; growth was less when lime was added at 4 tons per acre. Trees on the older spoil were heavily mycorrhizal with Pisolithus tinctorius while trees on the younger spoil were essentially non-mycorrhizal, possibly accounting for greater vigor and growth on the older spoil and the absence of a response to liming. Winter injury (1976-1977) was greater in those trees that grew most rapidly during the previous growing season, especially in the older planting. On a surface mine near Oliver Springs, Tennessee (2,250 feet elevation), application of a wetting agent and/or a NP fertilizer to the soil appeared to increase growth of trees but survival decreased when either were applied to loblolly pine at planting time. Seedlings inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi survived better and grew more than those not inoculated. Grass density appeared to be the primary factor influencing seedling survival, with high mortality in dense lovegrass.

Northern hardwood forests are a vast, temperate forest-type existing across much of northeastern North America. In the northeastern U.S., these forests are found from New York to Maine where they have central cultural, ecological, and economic significance. These ecosystems are incredibly variable across this region, growing on a range of sites and influenced by a suite of biotic and abiotic conditions. Developing management regimes that accommodate the ecological complexity of these forests has been the focus of silvicultural studies for decades; however, this work has been constrained by temporal and spatial limitations. As such, there is still uncertainty regarding the evolution and variability of northern hardwood forests over time and across sites under different management scenarios. To address this uncertainty we synthesized long-term silvicultural studies (20 years +) throughout the northeast and assessed outcomes as they related to management objectives and changing forest conditions. Specifically, we explored the regeneration dynamics and development of overstory conditions for even and uneven-aged systems with four distinct approaches. First, we established context for this work through review of existing silvicultural research and analysis of the current northern hardwood resource. Next, we applied long-term, regional inventories to consider abiotic and biotic factors influencing recent sugar maple (Acer saccharum) establishment and survival. We then evaluated long-term outcomes of commonly applied even and uneven-age silvicultural systems across a range of sites in New York and New Hampshire using repeated inventories from long-term research trials. Finally, we followed the evolution of gap dynamics over eight decades in the oldest group selection study in North America; research established at the Bartlett Experimental Forest in New Hampshire in the early 1930s. Cumulatively, results showed a frequent disconnect between structure and composition of the overstory and regeneration layers, and the potential for future challenges to sustaining current overstory species. In addition, this work highlighted the pervasive, negative influence of American beech (Fagus grandifolia) across the region on regeneration of desired species, namely sugar maple and yellow birch (Betula alleghenesis). Outcomes from this work suggest that a variety of silvicultural systems can be used to maintain and regenerate northern hardwood forests; however favorable outcomes require careful consideration of site conditions with management regimes tailored accordingly.

The characteristics of tourists visiting Utah that are pertinent to defining target markets for the direction of state promotion programs were studied and analyzed during the summer of 1966. Five significant geographical-party composition target markets were identified as prospective tourist markets . These were California families, East-Wes t North Central families, Western families, East- West North Central couples, and California couples. Target markets of enroute tourist parties were also identified for instate promotional efforts. The markets identified were divided on their relative degree of vacation planning and willingness to deviate from a planned route to visit additional attractions. Significant differences among parties found in different regions of the State were identified. Some of the differential variables studied were education, income, occupation, and tourist party vacation area suggesters and decision makers.

Soil moisture depletion was studied in quaking aspen and Gambel oak areas of central Utah. The study area is located at about 8100 feet elevation in a zone with 20 to 25 inches precipitation annually. Treatments ranged from no disturbance to clearcutting. Soil Moisture was measured periodically during the summer of 1966. Results showed less soil moisture depletion on the plots of least residual basel area. Average soil moisture depletion the season following cutting at two sites was 4.3 inches less than it was on higher residual basal area plots. The reduction in soil moisture depletion occurred principally below the roots of the herbaceous plants and grass in the zone that would normally be occupied by living tree roots.

Two of the biggest concerns facing communities in the Intermountain West are the dichotomies of rapid growth and development as opposed to economic decline and stagnation. Numerous strategies have been developed by social and economic scientists to help communities manage the many problems associated with these concerns. One strategy recommended by many researchers and used by numerous communities to stabilize their economies is economic diversification. For many rural communities in Utah, tourism and recreation have been used as part of that diversification effort. Recreation and tourism also play a role in the dichotomies of rapid growth and development by often serving as the antecedent to rapid growth, or serving as the antidote for economic stagnation and decline. This thesis examined four rural communities in Utah which have diversified or are attempting to diversify their economies through incorporating tourism and recreation into their economies, which also include agriculture, ranching, and extraction of natural resources, as well as other industries such as manufacturing and services. Our purpose was to examine strategies used by these communities to make recreation and tourism compatible with other activities, as well as determining what tactics they drew upon to preserve the small town atmosphere and unique characteristics of their communities. Through understanding and sharing the problems encountered and strategies used by these four communities, we hoped to assist other communities attempting to integrate tourism and recreation into their economies and lifestyles.

Microstegium vimineum is a non-native invasive plant species classified as an annual, shade-tolerant C4 grass. There is limited research regarding variables affecting the spread of M. vimineum. Two studies were conducted to investigate the spread of M. vimineum. A field study was undertaken in 2009 to determine how M. vimineum spreads in relation to litter disturbance. In 2010, a greenhouse study was conducted to determine the impact light has on M. vimineum aboveground biomass, height growth, and photosynthetic efficiency. The field study consisted of three treatments, Undisturbed (Control), Stirring, and Removal of leaf litter, employed along the boundary of existing M. vimineum populations in ½-meter by 2-meter plots. Distance of spread from the existing population and percent cover were documented for one growing season. Plants were counted at the end of the study. Neither stirring nor removal of leaf litter had a significant impact on spread rate, percent cover, or the number of plants in a given treatment suggesting pre-growing season leaf litter disturbance does not influence M. vimineum spread, percent cover, or number of plants. The greenhouse study consisted of growing M. vimineum under four light treatments: 100, 70, 45, and 20 percent of full light. Heights were measured weekly while minimum, maximum, and variable fluorescence emission, non-photochemical and photochemical quenching, and maximum quantum yield of Photosystem II photochemistry (QYmax) were measured every 10 days. Aboveground biomass accumulation was calculated at the end of the study. Results indicate that M. viminuem aboveground biomass accumulation is highest in 70 percent to 100 percent light while photosynthetic efficiency is highest between 45 percent and 70 percent light. This research indicates that M. vimineum does not spread appreciably at low light levels (closed canopies) in areas with litter disturbances that do not change the light regime. M. vimineum has greater aboveground biomass and photosynthetic efficiencies at higher levels of light. Thus, forest disturbances that result in more light reaching the ground may influence the spread of M. vimineum by creating a more favorable environment.

Microstegium vimineum is a non-native invasive plant species classified as an annual, shade-tolerant C4 grass. There is limited research regarding variables affecting the spread of M. vimineum. Two studies were conducted to investigate the spread of M. vimineum. A field study was undertaken in 2009 to determine how M. vimineum spreads in relation to litter disturbance. In 2010, a greenhouse study was conducted to determine the impact light has on M. vimineum aboveground biomass, height growth, and photosynthetic efficiency.The field study consisted of three treatments, Undisturbed (Control), Stirring, and Removal of leaf litter, employed along the boundary of existing M. vimineum populations in ½-meter by 2-meter plots. Distance of spread from the existing population and percent cover were documented for one growing season. Plants were counted at the end of the study. Neither stirring nor removal of leaf litter had a significant impact on spread rate, percent cover, or the number of plants in a given treatment suggesting pre-growing season leaf litter disturbance does not influence M. vimineum spread, percent cover, or number of plants.The greenhouse study consisted of growing M. vimineum under four light treatments: 100, 70, 45, and 20 percent of full light. Heights were measured weekly while minimum, maximum, and variable fluorescence emission, non-photochemical and photochemical quenching, and maximum quantum yield of Photosystem II photochemistry (QYmax) were measured every 10 days. Aboveground biomass accumulation was calculated at the end of the study. Results indicate that M. viminuem aboveground biomass accumulation is highest in 70 percent to 100 percent light while photosynthetic efficiency is highest between 45 percent and 70 percent light. This research indicates that M. vimineum does not spread appreciably at low light levels (closed canopies) in areas with litter disturbances that do not change the light regime. M. vimineum has greater aboveground biomass and photosynthetic efficiencies at higher levels of light. Thus, forest disturbances that result in more light reaching the ground may influence the spread of M. vimineum by creating a more favorable environment.