Forest fragmentation is caused by the clearing of patches of indigenous vegetation for agriculture, urban development, and other human land uses. Such action results in patches of remnant natural vegetation being surrounded by altered vegetation. I investigate the effects of forest fragmentation and matrix type on avian diversity and assemblage structure in forest patches of the historically fragmented Karkloof / Balgowan forest range, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. This study compares the bird assemblage diversity and composition of indigenous forest patches surrounded by commercial forestry (Gilboa complex) with that surrounded by natural grassland matrix (Balgowan complex). Insularisation of Afromontane Mistbelt forest in KwaZulu-Natal has led to loss of species where forest fragments support fewer bird species than comparably sized patches of mainland forest. Small fragments within natural grassland have fewer bird species per unit area than larger fragments. Forest patch area-dependent density compensation is evident and bird assemblages appear saturated. Bird assemblages are characterised by a non-random species distribution pattern where area-dependent processes are dominant, and the loss of species from fragments follows a deterministic sequence. In forests in the plantation-dominated matrix no island-effect is detectable and it appears that forest patches are converging on the same bird species richness, regardless of forest size. No density compensation is evident and bird assemblages are not saturated. The sequence of species loss from forest patches is not as predictable, where a random yet prominent colonisation process exists. As commercial plantations provide suitable habitat cover for movement of forest birds, colonisation of both distant and small indigenous forest patches has been possible, reducing the effects of area-dependent extinction in the forest patches but also resulting in lower species richness in larger patches. Bird species of the Karkloof / Balgowan forest range appear to be fragmentation adapted, and most species are resilient to further landscape change. Certain species are however more prone to local extinction than others. The major predictors of extinction risk are body size, abundance status, and feeding guild. Patch area is the dominant force governing traits in the natural Balgowan complex where larger species with low natural abundance and an insectivorous diet are most prone to local extinction. In the Gilboa complex the nature of the plantation matrix appears to be masking the species natural responses to fragmentation making it difficult to predict which species are most at risk. In order to preserve maximum bird diversity, including high-risk species, the largest intact forest units (≥302ha) must be conserved. Evidently, the nature of the matrix affects avifaunal diversity and distribution in forest patches, and plantations have the capacity to significantly alter bird assemblage structure and composition in indigenous forest patches. Forest fragments must be considered as integrated parts of a complex landscape mosaic, and this study emphasises the importance of understanding landscape-scale processes. Knowledge of ecological and life history traits proves valuable for predicting community level response to landscape change. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Considering the high rate of endemism in Madagascan organisms, which are mostly restricted to forest ecosystems, and the accelerating rate of deforestation affecting the island, it is critical to understand the effects of forest fragmentation on Malagasy biota to allow for better management of species within ecosystems. Ecological and human-induced changes have led to the disappearance of forest from vast areas of the island, including on the central High Plateau. The Ambohitantely Special Reserve, located on the central High Plateau at 1500 m asl, was selected as the study site for research on the effects of forest fragmentation on forestependent bird species in Madagascar. The Ambohitantely special Reserve covers 5600 ha of which 50% are natural forest, 35% are anthropogenic grassland savannah and 15% are exotic plantations. The forest, described as East Malagasy moist montane forest, is 2737 ha in area, of which 1487 ha are comprised of 513 forest fragments scattered around the largest block totalling 1250 ha. To investigate the effects of forest fragmentation on forest-dependent bird species, seven forest fragments were selected, ranging from 0.64 ha to 136 ha, in addition to the largest block, referred to as the control site. The bird species composition and relative abundance in different-sized fragments were assessed in reference to the control site, by using a combination of two standardized sampling methods: mistnetting and point-counts. A total of 1804 mistnet-days were accrued, 1026 in the control site and 778 in the seven forest fragments, leading to the capture of 491 birds of 26 species. A total of 160 point-counts was made at 39 different sample plots totalling 53 h 29 min of censusing, and a record of 30 species. A total of 72 bird species including 54 breeding forest affinities of the avifauna of Ambohitantely were defined with reference to 32 forest sites scattered across Madagascar. The species composition in all fragments are fully nested subsets of the control site and the species distribution in the fragments does not represent random subsets of the control site. The analysis of the bird communities in different size fragments indicates that the occurrence of bird species reflects a regular pattern of species extinction in relation to decreasing size of forest fragment. Species composition is discussed in reference to Ambohitantely's long history of isolation that may have led to extirpation of bird species from this site. The higher bird taxa decrease in number or totally disappear as a result of their ecological specialization. Equally, they are the most affected by edge effects (e. g. Atelornis pittoides). The main ecological trends in disappearance or extinction of species is a decrease in the number of small-bodied insectivorous understorey species and mid- and upper-stratum small-bodied insectivorous and nectarivorous species. Insectivorous species are particularly affected by forest fragmentation and three forest-dependent species found in Ambohitantely Forest are particularly sensitive to forest fragmentation: Newtonia amphichroa, Calicalicus madagascariensis, and Cyanolanius madagascarinus. The biological (flora species composition and forest structure) and the physical (temperature, moisture, and light) changes generated by the fragmentation of the forest have a greater impact on highly specialized foraging guilds and this explains the pattern of current bird species composition in Ambohitantely Forest. The influence of forest fragmentation on the altitudinal migration process is debated and conservation measures such as the establishment of forest corridors are proposed to improve the protection of biota found in the Ambohitantely Special Reserve. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1995.

I examined impacts of thinning on bird population densities and habitat use in Appalachian mixed-hardwood forests during 1984 and 1985 at three thinned and three unthinned stands in the Jefferson National Forest, southwestern Virginia. Densities of shrubs, saplings, trees, and snags, canopy and ground cover, and foliage volume were the structural variables most influenced by thinning. Populations of shrub/understory birds were higher in thinned stands than unthinned stands. Canopy-dwelling species showed variable population responses to thinning. Habitat use similarities were used to group 13 bird species into three categories: (1) shrub/conifer species included the tufted titmouse, blue-gray gnatcatcher, wood thrush, ovenbird, and hooded warbler, (2) generalist species included the eastern wood-pewee, red-eyed vireo, black-and-white warbler, and scarlet tanager, and (3) mature/deciduous species included the white-breasted nuthatch, solitary vireo, blackburnian warbler, and worm-eating warbler. Shrub, snag, and conifer density and ground cover were the four habitat variables most important in separating used from unused sites. Foraging behavior and resource use of seven bird species were examined in two thinned and two unthinned stands. No differences in foraging methods or niche breadth were found between the stands for all species. Differences in foraging and tree heights were due to tree height differences between the stands. For most species, foraging resource use was equal to availability. Short, small diameter trees were rarely used. Oaks were used most often, and red maple and conifers were rarely used for foraging. The opportunistic nature of avian foraging behavior and the vegetative differences between thinned and unthinned stands led to the foraging differences noted. / Master of Science

Recent research has emphasized the importance of understanding the consequences of species loss, not just for biodiversity per se, but also for ecosystem resilience and functioning. Firstly, a baseline analysis of the effects of a naturally patchy landscape on avian community composition and resilience in a high altitude Afrotemperate forest landscape in South Africa is presented. Bird data from a point count survey of 706 counts at 31 forest sites was used to test whether taxonomic species diversity, functional species richness and density of birds provide insight into community resilience in this historically patchy ecosystem. Bird species richness of forest patches ranged from 17 to 38, with a total species richness of 50. Density was slightly but negatively related to both area and species richness. That density compensation is occurring in these Afrotemperate forests suggests a level of resilience in this system. Following on from this, cumulative species-area and function-area graphs were derived to quantify the loss of forest area or taxonomic bird species richness that this landscape may potentially sustain before ecosystem functioning is negatively affected. The concept that species’ patterns of distribution, abundance and coexistence are the result of local ecological processes has recently been challenged by evidence that regionalscale processes are equally instrumental in shaping local community composition. The historically and naturally fragmented Afrotemperate forests of the uKhahlamba– Drakensberg Park, South Africa, offer an interesting test case. In this study the relative effects of local and regional-scale processes on species assemblages in a naturally patchy forest system were investigated. By employing species-area and species-isolation relationships, and nested subset analyses, we showed that isolation (regional-scale process) had a greater effect on bird species richness and composition than area (local-scale process), though the species-area relationship was significant. Using generalized linear models and an information-theoretic approach to model selection, patch area, the size of the regional species pool as well as the distance to the nearest Eastern Mistbelt forest were all influential in determining local bird species richness in these montane forests. Thus, localities are regionally enriched within the constraints on species occupancy provided by the available habitat. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.