The focus of this field investigation was an analysis of the work demands being placed on South African forestry workers, in particular Chainsaw Operators and Stackers. Working postures, physiological and perceptual responses were assessed on a sample of 58 workers (29 Chainsaw Operators and 29 Stackers) during a ‘normal’ working shift. Body mass was measured before and after work in order to determine dehydration levels. Polar heart rate monitors were fitted to six workers each day over a period of two weeks in order to record ‘working’ heart rates. Fluid and food intake was monitored and recorded during this initial data collection phase. The Rating of Perceived Exertion and Body Discomfort Scales were explained in Zulu, their native language, and workers were asked to rate their perceptions of effort at regular intervals during work, while areas and intensity of body discomfort was obtained on completion of work. After completing a work shift, a 30 minute ‘recovery’ period was given, thereafter a portable ergospirometer, the k4b², was attached to the worker who then participated in a progressive, submaximal step test for the purpose of establishing individual, and group, heart rate-oxygen uptake (HR/VO[subscript 2]) regressions for predicting oxygen uptake from ‘working’ heart rate responses. These procedures were repeated four weeks later following the introduction of a fluid and nutritional supplement during work which was delivered to the workers while they were executing their tasks. The results revealed awkward working postures with a predominance of trunk flexion during all the harvesting tasks; these postures, adopted for long periods during work, are very likely to lead to the development of musculoskeletal injuries. The mean working heart rates were 123.3 bt.min[superscript (-1)] and 117.6 bt.min[superscript (-1)] during chainsaw operations and stacking respectively. During the step test, the mean heart rate and oxygen uptake responses were 127.9 bt.min[superscript (-1)] and 22.9 mlO[subscript 2].kg[superscript (-1)].min[superscript (-1)] (Chainsaw Operators) and 116.9 bt.min[superscript (-1)] and 24.0 mlO[subscript 2].kg[superscript (-1)].min[superscript (-1)] (Stackers), revealing no significant difference between the ‘working’ heart rates and the heart rates recorded during the step test. Physiological responses were analyzed over the full work shift which was divided into four quarters. Heart rate and oxygen uptake were significantly higher during the last half of the Chainsaw Operators’ work shift compared to the first half. Heart rate increased from 120.7 bt.min[superscript (-1)] during the first quarter to 127.4 bt.min[superscript (-1)] during the last quarter of chainsaw operations. Likewise, oxygen uptake increased from 19.9 mlO[subscript 2].kg[superscript (-1)].min[superscript (-1)] to 22.9 mlO[subscript 2].kg[superscript (-1)].min[superscript (-1)] from the first to the last quarter of work. During stacking the heart rate (mean of 117.6 bt.min[superscript (-1)]) and oxygen uptake (mean of 24.6 ml.kg[superscript (-1)].min[superscript (-1)]) responses remained stable over the duration of the working shift. Workers lost, on average, 2.8% body mass during work while felling and cross-cutting and 3.6% during stacking. This reduced significantly to a loss of 0.4% body mass when re-tested following the introduction of water and food during the work period. Likewise, the energy deficit was significantly improved due to the introduction of a nutritional supplement. Pre-intervention the deficit was 8861.8 kJ (Chainsaw Operators) and 8804.2 kJ (Stackers) while in the post-intervention phase this deficit was reduced by approximately 50% for both groups of workers.

This research which makes reference to Sappi South Africa is grounded in a South African context, within the forestry industry. The aims of the study are to- 1. Provide a description of corporate social investment (in a Sappi/ South African context) from a theoretical, corporate and legislative perspective which will describe current Sappi CSI activity, its implementation, measurement and the driving force behind them. 2. To articulate a sound understanding without judgement of the current status of corporate social investment based upon the application of (1) above. 3. To position Sappi’s CSI approach on a macro government/ corporate power scale which will facilitate rich understanding concerning the long term sustainability of Sappi’s CSI approach on the corporation, the forestry industry and the South African economy. 4. To distill a consensual interpretation that is more informed and sophisticated than previous constructions within Sappi Forest Products Division. The qualitative research is descriptive. A single case-study method has been adopted. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), as a late twentieth-century American movement, is a modern manifestation of an ancient debate amongst philosophers and theologians in many lands and cultures about the morality of commerce itself (Hood, 1996). Friedman (1962) quoted in Anshen (1980:10) argues that business should not and must not deviate from its profit orientation and that it should be concerned only with its economic performance. Friedman supported the notion ‘the business of business is business’ and adds, as quoted in Smith (1990:60), that to suggest corporations should have a social responsibility is to fail to understand the way in which the market is and must be played and asks, ‘if business does have a social responsibility other than making profits for shareholders, how are they to know what it is? Frederick et al, (1998:36) argue that Corporate Social Responsibility balances power with responsibility, responds to public needs and expectations and can contribute to correcting societal imbalances implicit in most economies. Smith (1990:89) suggests that the social control of business is achieved by either virtue of moral obligation, market forces and legislation, or, manipulation, inducement and force. Beesley and Evans (1978) quoted in Smith (1990:54) note ‘there is recognition of the growth of corporate power and the consequent perception of relative shift from government to companies as the source of social improvement and the means to promote specific items of social welfare.’ On this basis it may therefore be concluded that societal responsibilities should be shared between government and business, and in this way power balanced and a healthy pluralistic state developed. The vision of Sappi’s Corporate Social Investment program is to be instrumental in empowering and creating opportunities for both personnel and their dependent communities in order to address their self-defined needs. Sappi’s CSI activity is concentrated on education and community development, environmental preservation and conservation, social welfare and arts and culture. CSI practices are driven by morality, enlightened self-interest and by the South African Government. If the corporation had only started trading in 2005 would the CSI vision be driven by the same ‘gears’, or would the moral obligation and enlightened self-interest become less apparent? It is recommended that the Sappi CSI initiative must embrace CSI and uplift it to the next level by implementing the change management process, outsourcing at least the rural CSI initiative and expanding into a more brand orientated CSI strategy. Sappi also needs to make strategic CSI alliances with other organizations.

Background: In South Africa, limited research has focused on the task demands and workers responses associated with forestry silviculture work, particularly pitting and planting. The methods currently in use are manual, but despite our lack of understanding of the existing demands, advances in forestry engineering have resulted in an introduction of semi-mechanised versions of these tasks. This project aimed to compare the task demands of silviculture tasks using the current manual techniques and the more modern, semi-mechanised techniques. Methods: A holistic investigation focused on the worker characteristics of a sample of black male pitters and black female planters from the Kwa-Zulu Natal forestry industry, as well as biomechanical (spinal kinematics and L5/S1 forces), physiological (heart rate, oxygen consumption and energy expenditure) and psychophysical (ratings of perceived exertion and body discomfort) responses associated with manual and semi-mechanised pitting and planting. Results: The pitting task saw significant improvements in the spinal kinematic measures as a result of the increased mechanisation, with eight of the 16 recorded variables decreasing to a lower level of risk classification. Physiologically, the manual task was associated with a mean heart rate of 157 bt.min⁻¹ and absolute energy expenditure of 11.27 kcal.min⁻¹, which were not found to be significantly different to the values of 143 bt.min⁻¹ and 9.8 kcal.min⁻¹ recorded during the semi-mechanised technique. Psychophysical responses indicated that the workers perceived manual pitting to be more physically demanding than the semi-mechanised method. The manual and semi-mechanised planting tasks were, in general, found to be acceptable from a spinal kinematics perspective, with the majority of variables classified as low risk. However, the maximum sagittal angle was reduced by more than 20 degrees as a result of the new equipment. The physiological and psychophysical demands associated with manual planting were found to be within acceptable limits. Conclusion: In terms of pitting, it can tentatively be concluded that the semi-mechanised technique is better than the manual one, based on the biomechanical and psychophysical findings, however physiological demands require further investigation. When considering the planting techniques, the semi-mechanised method showed a slight improvement from the biomechanical perspective, but further physiological and psychophysical investigations are needed.

Species of Prosopis (Mimosaceae), or mesquite, are native to the Americas and introduced in South Africa as agro forestry trees to provide wood, fodder and shade in the late 1800s. In the Northern Cape Province, these trees have been particularly used for their pods by local farmers and local industry. However due to Prosopis’ ability to spread rapidly there has been increasing pressure to step up control of the tree. Due to the costs associated with most control methods biological control has been singled out as the most viable control method worth pursuing. This thesis attempts to explain and shed light on the effects that increased biological control of Prosopis would have on the farming community and Prosopis based businesses in the area. Two hypothetical scenarios were used, the first being a possible 50% reduction in available pods and the other a possible 100% reduction. In an effort to explain these effects data was collected from a series of collection activities in the form of a pilot study and two unique questionnaire surveys. Twenty-seven farmers and one Prosopis based business were interviewed at random with the data analysed and documented. Results showed that the business community is the main user of pods incurring crippling losses in the event of a 50% or 100% decrease in available pods. Using control costs from working for water De Aar long term costs of the presence of Prosopis were estimated and compared to the estimated provincial cost of losing pods giving a cost comparison ratio of (α)270 million : Y(N(15.7million)). Only 48% of the respondents valued pods and 11% had traded in pods, the top concern resulting from the invasion was the loss of underground water. With a 50% decline in available pods, all respondents indicated unchanged effects. However empirical results showed that with a 100% decline in pods estimate losses of R 5 818 per farm are expected. The cost comparison ratio showing the losses farmers bore with Prosopis in the area and the losses they would suffer with a 100% decline in pods was R11 389 + (K): R5 818. In light of the empirical results, policy recommendations that support the introduction of more effective biological control agents have been made with areas for further research identified and discussed.

Please read the abstract in the front section of this document / Dissertation (M Inst Agrar (Sustainable Ecological Management))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study aimed to understand how Dukuduku Forest in Kwa-Zulu Natal has changed from 1960 to 2008 and whether the change in political regimes, during and post apartheid eras might have contributed to changes in forest extent. To achieve the aims, the following analyses were made: - Qualitative and quantitative spatial analyses of forest change; - Analyses of the correspondence of change with political changes in the country; - Assessment of perception of people living in the Dukuduku forest area. The Dukuduku land cover was mapped from aerial photos using ArcGIS 9.3 to determine whether or not there has been a significant change in the area from 1960-2008, in response to resource use pressures and to come up with the strategic sustainable management plan from the results found. Five aerial photographs were used to determine the changes in land cover from the year: 1960, 1970, 1992, 2005 and 2008. The Land cover types were classified into four classes, Indigenous Forests, Plantation Forests, Water Bodies and Other (open areas, cultivated land, and all the human disturbed and transformed land). The percentage of cover per class was compared across the years to determine overall change in land cover and the rate of change per year was also calculated. The results from the study showed that: - Natural Forest increased by 11% (700 ha), at the rate of 20.56 hectares per year between 1960 and 1992, which is the apartheid era. Between 1992 and 2008, the democratic era, the forest decreased by 34.4% (2472.31ha), at the rate of 168 hectares per year. - The Dukuduku forest community gains resources (timber and grass for construction, art, firewood, medicinal plants, grazing of livestock and food) from the forest. The people are willing to contribute in protecting the forest only if the governing authorities would include them in decisions made, as the NFA demands Participatory Forest Management, but which does not currently exist in Dukuduku. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie ondersoek die verandering van die Dukuduku woud in Kwa-Zulu Natal vanaf 1960 tot 2008, en vernaamlik of die verandering in politieke regimes tydens en in die postapartheid eras tot verandering bygedra het in die woud se vorm. Om hierdie doelwitte te breik is die volgende analises gedoen: - Kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe ruimtelike analises van woudverandering; - Analises van die korrelasie tussen hierdie fisiese omgewingsverandering en politieke verandering in die land; - Analise van die persepsie van mense wat in die Dukuduku woudgebied woon. Die Dukuduku gronddekking is gekarteer met behulp van lugfotos, waarvoor ArcGIS 9.3 gebruik is om te bepaal of daar noemenswaardige verandering in die gebied plaasgevind het van 1960 tot 2008, in reaksie op hulpbrongebruike, en om ‘n volhoubare bestuursplan gestel voor wat op die bevindinge gebaseer is. Vyf lugfotos is gebruik om verandering in gronddekking te bepaal vir die jare: 1960, 1970, 1992, 2005 en 2008. Die Gronddekking tipes is geklassifiseer in vier klasse naamlik Inheemse Woude, Plantasiebosse, Waterliggame en Ander (oop gebiede, landerye en al die mens-versteurde en getransfomeerde gebiede). Die persentasie van elke dekkingsklas is oor die jare vergelyk om die verandering in algehele grond-dekking te bepaal, en die tempo van verandering is ook bepaal, asook die tempo van verandering. Die resultate van die studie wys dat: - Die natuurlike woud toegeneem het met 11% (700 ha), teen ‘n tempo van 20.56 hektaar per jaar tussen 1960 en 1992, tgedurende die apartheidsera. Tussen 1992 en 2008, die demokratiese era, het die woude verminder met 34.4% (2472.31 ha), teen ‘n tempo van 168 hektaar per jaar. - Die gemeenskap wat in die Dukuduku woud woon verkry hulpbronne van die woud (hout en gras vir konstruksie, kuns, brandhout, medisinale plante, weiding vir vee, en voedsel). Die mense is gewillig om by te dra tot beskerming van die woud indien die owerhede hulle sou betrek in besluite wat geneem word, veral omdat die nasionale Wet op Bosse voorsiening maak vir Deelnemende Bosbestuur, wat tans nie by Dukuduku gebeur nie.

Black wattle (Acacia mearnsii), which belongs to the genus Acacia, is one of the many species of trees or hardwoods grown commercially in South Africa. Black wattle is a species indigenous to Australia and was introduced into South Africa by the van der Plank brothers in 1864. These trees are grown in South Africa because of its tannin-rich bark, the extract of which is used by the leather tanning industry. Black wattle is also grown for its timber, timber products and pulp. The introduction and cultivation history of black wattle suggests that the South African plantations contain limited genetic variation with relatedness amongst groups estimated to be high, thus implying a narrow genetic base in the South African black wattle population. In this investigation, Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was used to estimate the genetic variation between seven different black wattle groups. A total number of 34 individuals obtained from different areas in South Africa were examined; Piet Retief (group 47 and 50: half-sibs), Kumbula (group 85: unrelated individuals), Howick (group 400: unrelated individuals) and an unknown area (groups 88, 89, 91: full-sibs). As this investigation was the first of its kind, a DNA isolation method as well as a PCR-RAPD protocol had to be modified. Total genomic DNA was successfully extracted using the CTAB DNA extraction method. This method removed large amounts of tannin present in the cells of the black wattle leaves and extracted high quality DNA to conduct between 50-100 RAPD reactions. The DNA purities ranged from 0.1 to 1.8, with an average of 1.46. A total of fourteen 10-mer RAPD primer sequences were randomly selected from the Operon Technologies primer list A, and tested in this investigation. Of the 14 primers used, only nine primers produced clear, single and repeatable bands. Therefore nine primers were selected for subsequent analyses. Ninety one loci that generated bands ranging from 300-3050 base pairs were produced. Seven to 13 loci per primer were generated. A total of 95.6 % of the loci were polymorphic. The overall expected mean heterozygosity (H = 0.3) obtained in this study was high in comparison to other studies conducted on acacias. The high levels of genetic variation were attributed to mating systems, dissortative mating and geographic distribution. The statistical packages POPGENE and ARLEQUIN were used to analyse the RAPD fingerprints. The genetic measures, Nei's diversity and Shannon's Information Index, showed that there was greater diversity exhibited (Nei's gene diversity = 32.09 % and Shannon's = 48.31 %), in the whole population than in each of the groups (with average of Nei's gene diversity = 20.33 % and Shannon's = 34.64 %). With regards to individual group analyses, low levels of genetic variation was obtained in group 400 (unrelated), from the Howick region, and group 85 (unrelated), from the Kumbula region, (mean 0.14 and 0.17 respectively). The low genetic values were attributed to limited gene exchange occurring in these two areas, bottlenecks and selection pressures. Groups 88, 89 and 91, from the unknown region (full-sib groups), were the most variable in comparison to the other groups, with means of (0.27,0.24 and 0.18 respectively). These high genetic variation values could be due to the fact that gene migration could have occurred between these groups and others in the area. It is thought that most acacias are insect-pollinated and this could have lead to gene migration between groups or populations, thereby explaining the high mean values. The gene flow obtained for the seven groups (FST = 0.174) indicated that great genetic differentiation existed in this population of black wattle studied. This value is higher in comparison to other woody species; however it is similar to other acacia species. UPGMA cluster analysis using Nei's unbiased genetic distance, revealed four distinct clusters of groups corresponding to the distribution areas represented in this study. The Howick (group 400: unrelated) and Kumbula (group 85: unrelated) were more closely related to each other than to the other groups, since both these groups are from Natal. The Piet Retief groups (groups 47 and 50: half-sibs), branched-off together, indicating that they are distinct from the other groups. The pairwise analysis of identity showed that the relationship between the group from Howick (group 400: unrelated) and all the other groups from the other regions was the lowest, ranging from 64 % to 79 %. The relationship between all the groups beside the group from Howick (group 400: unrelated) was reasonably high, ranging from 78 % to 90 %. This distance displayed by group 400 (unrelated) from Howick in relation to the groups, is attributed to the fact that it is frost resistant and the other groups not. Genetic variation was also detected and partitioned, between and within groups, by Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMQVA). Majority of the variation existed within groups (82.65 %) but significant differentiation was recorded between groups (17.44 %). This high level of within group differentiation may be explained by many aspects, such as the species breeding system, genetic drift or genetic isolation of groups or populations. The application of RAPD fingerprinting in black wattle has provided a more in depth understanding of the genetic variation residing in the South African population. The results achieved implementing this technique has shown that significant genetic variation exists within the black wattle population in South Africa. The results obtained in this study are also important since it is contrary to the expectation that the black wattle population in South Africa has low genetic variation. This knowledge is of great value to genetically discriminate between individuals or groups, to improve the selection of superior genotypes and allowing improved quality control in breeding programmes and seed orchard management. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

A great deal of research has demonstrated that Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) play a crucial role in the livelihoods of the rural poor, and are particularly important to the most marginalised people throughout the developing world. However, these livelihood benefits are not without cost to the natural resource base that rural communities depend so heavily upon. The continued dependence on NTFPs as a major livelihood source must be contingent upon the minimisation of the level of disturbance created through this dependency. This study assesses the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting in eight study sites around South Africa, and applies a predictive conceptual model created by Shankaar et al. (2004b) to try and ascertain under what conditions the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting will be high. It assesses the three key factors that Shankaar et al. (2004b) identified (level of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK), level of dependency and access to markets) in relation to the level of disturbance found at each of the study sites. It was found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the level of dependency and the level of disturbance, but there was no statistically significant relationship between either access to markets or the level of LEK and disturbance. Regulation of land use is a key issue, with weak local institutions in communal areas making effective resource management difficult. The significance of these findings is discussed, and priorities for future research are identified. This study adds to the body of knowledge related to NTFP harvesting and critically analyses the conflicts between the livelihood gains and the level of disturbance created through NTFP harvesting in an attempt to ascertain how livelihoods can be safeguarded. And in the longer-term, so that management strategies can be identified where resource extraction is not at the cost of undermining the very livelihoods that depend upon the natural resource base.

This research assesses the state of sustainability of State indigenous forests in the Eastern Cape and provides recommendations to improve their sustainability. The Eastern Cape Indigenous Forest Management Audit (ECIFMA) report of 2009 provided the primary data for this assessment (DAFF, 2009). The research was inspired by the fact that the global challenge of forestry destruction and degradation where the extent of forests is being reduced at an alarming rate of 6% annually. It became essential for global leaders to develop policies and strategies that sought to promote sustainable forest management. The monitoring of sustainability of forests was only possible through use of globally and nationally developed sets of criteria and indicators. Eleven forest estates responsible for the management of State indigenous forests in the Eastern Cape were selected for this research. The choice was influenced by the availability of audit data from the ECIFMA report of 2009. This report contained performance information of 41 indicators under 18 criteria for monitoring sustainable forest management as extracted from the PCI&S assessment checklist developed for monitoring the sustainability of indigenous forests in South Africa (DWAF, 2005). The data was refined using the MCA methods (ranking and scoring) as described by Mendoza and Prabhu (2000). These methods yielded to the determination of the performance of indicators of forest sustainability. It was thus important to conclude the research by responding to the following questions: • What is the state of sustainability of the State indigenous forests in the Eastern Cape? • What recommendations could be made to improve the sustainability of State indigenous forests? It was found that the State indigenous forests were not managed in a sustainable manner. The research report is concluded by providing concrete recommendations to improve forest sustainability.

South Africa is not well-endowed with indigenous forests and those that remain are known to be degraded and declining at an alarming rate. This constitutes a direct threat to the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households which are directly dependent on the resources indigenous forests offer, as well as to ecological integrity. It is also recognised that the declining tree resources, particularly the indigenous tree species of high value, are increasingly threatened by a number of growing subsistence demands. This emphasises the need to establish, cultivate and conserve high-value tree species. Community forestry is recognised as a viable option for optimising land productivity; reducing pressure on indigenous forests and woodlands; ensuring a sustainable supply of desired tree products and services; and improving the quality of life of the resource-poor rural households. The primary purpose of Community Forestry Development (CFD) in the Hlabisa District is the provision of an information service and of technical support to enhance the livelihoods of rural communities by means of tree-related resources. Community forestry mainly focuses on tree resources that form an integral part of or contribute to rural people’s livelihoods. This includes small-scale growers (woodlots), woodlands and indigenous forests. Community forestry can be defined as tree growing and managed by the people for the people. Community forestry encompasses a wide range of activities which include farm forestry, agroforestry, village planting, woodlots, woodland management and indigenous-forest management by rural people, as well as tree planting in urban and peri-urban areas. Natural forests in South Africa account for less than 1 percent of the total land area. It has been suggested that these natural forests will no longer be able to meet the demand for forest products by 2020. The KwaZulu Department of Agriculture and Forestry embarked on community forestry in 1976 (but only on an ad hoc basis) as a possible solution to this dilemma. Later, the two South African pulp and paper giants, SAPPI and Mondi, started the Project Grow and Khulanathi Schemes respectively. One of the objectives of out-grower schemes was to encourage rural communities to plant trees on their own lands for the economic, social and environmental benefits trees offer. For example, timber could be sold to forestry companies. Financial assistance was offered to these communities to encourage implementation of such schemes. This exercise was aimed at bringing economic activity, capacity- building and community empowerment to the rural areas. The growers would benefit from the financial assistance and the readily available market provided by the company, while the company would be able to satisfy its demand for timber.