Surfaces submerged in marine environments rapidly get colonized by marine organisms, a process known as biofouling. Fouling costs maritime industries billions of dollars annually. The most common methods of combating marine biofouling are toxin containing antifouling coatings which often have detrimental non-target environmental effects. These effects and proposed bans on harmful substances in antifouling coatings, mandates development of more environmentally friendly antifouling technologies. Of these, foul-release coatings, which minimize attachment and adhesion of fouling organisms (rather than killing them) are promising alternatives. Here I explored the utility of petroleum waxes as novel antifouling/foul-release coatings. I first investigated the responses of propagules (larvae or spores) of six common fouling organisms to wax coatings in the laboratory. A wide variation in the response of these different organisms, and in the different types of response (settlement, adhesion, etc.) by the same organism, was observed, but the most inhibitory coatings were those made from microcrystalline wax and silicone oil. However, in field trials in Sydney Harbour, paraffin waxes had the strongest antifouling performance, with activity up to one year (the trial duration). These waxes also had strong foul-release effects, with fouling that did attach mostly removed by a low pressure water jet. Composition of fouling communities on paraffin waxes differed significantly from other waxes or controls, with little or no hard fouling organisms (barnacles, bivalves) on paraffin. The mechanisms of antifouling and foul-release actions of paraffin waxes appear to be due to changes in surface properties. The surfaces of the paraffin waxes changed noticeably after 4 - 8 weeks immersion in the sea or in seawater aquaria. Antibiotic treatments showed that this change in surface appearance was due to biological (microbial) activity. Bacteria appear to remove the amorphous phase from the surface of the paraffin waxes, revealing an underlying crystalline phase, which is less affected by bacterial action. I suggest that these crystals form a microstructured ?bed of nails? of crystals of varying shapes and sizes which inhibit settlement and reduce adhesion strength of those organisms which do settle.

Surfaces submerged in marine environments rapidly get colonized by marine organisms, a process known as biofouling. Fouling costs maritime industries billions of dollars annually. The most common methods of combating marine biofouling are toxin containing antifouling coatings which often have detrimental non-target environmental effects. These effects and proposed bans on harmful substances in antifouling coatings, mandates development of more environmentally friendly antifouling technologies. Of these, foul-release coatings, which minimize attachment and adhesion of fouling organisms (rather than killing them) are promising alternatives. Here I explored the utility of petroleum waxes as novel antifouling/foul-release coatings. I first investigated the responses of propagules (larvae or spores) of six common fouling organisms to wax coatings in the laboratory. A wide variation in the response of these different organisms, and in the different types of response (settlement, adhesion, etc.) by the same organism, was observed, but the most inhibitory coatings were those made from microcrystalline wax and silicone oil. However, in field trials in Sydney Harbour, paraffin waxes had the strongest antifouling performance, with activity up to one year (the trial duration). These waxes also had strong foul-release effects, with fouling that did attach mostly removed by a low pressure water jet. Composition of fouling communities on paraffin waxes differed significantly from other waxes or controls, with little or no hard fouling organisms (barnacles, bivalves) on paraffin. The mechanisms of antifouling and foul-release actions of paraffin waxes appear to be due to changes in surface properties. The surfaces of the paraffin waxes changed noticeably after 4 - 8 weeks immersion in the sea or in seawater aquaria. Antibiotic treatments showed that this change in surface appearance was due to biological (microbial) activity. Bacteria appear to remove the amorphous phase from the surface of the paraffin waxes, revealing an underlying crystalline phase, which is less affected by bacterial action. I suggest that these crystals form a microstructured ?bed of nails? of crystals of varying shapes and sizes which inhibit settlement and reduce adhesion strength of those organisms which do settle.