O processo de soldagem por atrito linear com mistura (FSW) é uma técnica recente para a soldagem no estado sólido de materiais, em particular para o alumínio e suas ligas. O processo foi inventado na Inglaterra em 1991. Neste processo, as partes a serem soldadas são fixadas e uma ferramenta especial realiza a soldagem de forma contínua. A ferramenta possui uma velocidade de rotação e, durante a sua translação, o material é misturado no estado sólido e, conseqüentemente, soldando as duas partes. A junta soldada por FSW de alumínio AA 6063-T6, com espessura de 3 mm foi caracterizada. A soldagem foi realizada com uma rotação da ferramenta de 710 rpm e com uma velocidade de translação de 5,3 mm/s. A ferramenta empregada é do tipo three flats, com diâmetro do ombro de 14 mm, diâmetro do pino de 3 mm e com ângulo de 90° com relação à horizontal. Os corpos de prova foram soldados em três condições: um passe, dois passes e dois passes com inversão de rotação do pino. Após a soldagem foram realizados os seguintes tratamentos térmicos: solubilização, envelhecimento e recozimento. A junta soldada foi caracterizada por macrografias, micrografias, microdureza, ensaios de calorimetria diferencial e EBSD. Os resultados mostraram que existem ZTMAs diferentes conforme a condição dos de passes. O número de passes tem influência nas componentes da textura alterando de Cubo para Latão e para Goss + Cobre. Os tratamentos térmicos de envelhecimento e recozimento produziram as maiores e menores durezas do cordão, respectivamente. Foi observada a sinergia entre os fatores número de passes e região do cordão no tamanho de grão do cordão. O lado de retrocesso, após o tratamento térmico, apresentou os grãos mais finos. / Friction stir welding (FSW) is a recent process for aluminium welding in solid state. This process was invented in England in 1991. The welding process is done with a special rotating tool that travels along the joint while the parts are fixed. The tool has a speed and a rotation and during its translation the material mixtures in solid state and the joint occurs. The objective of this paper is to show the metallurgical and mechanical characteristics of a 3 mm thick Aluminum AA 6063 T6 plate welded joint. The tool rotation speed was 710 rpm and the translation speed was 5.3 mm/s. The type of the tool used was three flats, with a shoulder diameter of 14mm and pin diameter of 3mm and perpendicular to the plate. The samples were welded in three conditions: one pass, two passes and two passes with pin rotation inversion in the second pass. The welded samples were also submitted to solution heat treatment, solution heat treatment followed by aging and annealing heat treatments. The welded joint was studied with these main experimental techniques: optical and scanning electron microscopy, microhardness, differential scanning calorimetry and electron backscatter diffraction for texture analysis. The results showed different TAZs according to the welding conditions. The number of passes has influence over the texture components changing from Cube to Brass and to Goss + Copper. The aging and solution heat treatments showed the highest and the lowest hardness, respectively. Synergy between the welding conditions and weld region was observed for the grain size results. The retreating side produced the finest grains after heat treating.

Dans le domaine aéronautique, le soudage par friction-malaxage (FSW – Friction Stir Welding) apparait comme un procédé innovant d’assemblage des fuselages, allégeant la structure avion en remplaçant la technique actuelle de rivetage. La simulation numérique est un support permettant de mieux comprendre et maîtriser ce procédé. L’alliage d’aluminium étudié dans ce projet est de type AA2024-T3 et tire principalement ses propriétés du durcissement structural. Modéliser l’évolution de la précipitation s’avère essentiel pour définir les propriétés finales de la soudure. Le modèle choisi doit prendre en considération les familles de précipités formés et les processus de germination, croissance et coalescence. Il doit être précis, robuste et rapide pour être applicable au procédé FSW. Un modèle de classe couplé à des calculs d’équilibre thermodynamiques a été choisi dans cette étude. Pour définir la cinétique de croissance d’un précipité, une cinétique de croissance initialement établie pour un alliage binaire a été étendue à un alliage multicomposé. Connaissant la distribution en taille des familles de précipités, les propriétés mécaniques sont définies selon un modèle empirique. La calibration anisotherme a été réalisée via un essai de DSC où signaux expérimentaux et simulés ont été comparés pour déterminer la teneur initiale des phases en présence et définir les paramètres matériaux de l’alliage. L’essai isotherme a établi le lien entre état de précipitation et propriétés mécaniques résultantes. Le modèle est appliqué à la simulation des évolutions microstructurales au cours d’une soudure FSW afin de prédire les propriétés finales du joint soudé. Les évolutions thermiques sont déterminées via l’utilisation d’un modèle macroscopique développé parallèlement dans une thèse, également portée par la Chaire Daher. Les données numériques obtenues sont comparées à des expériences instrumentées, montrant une bonne estimation des duretés. Les profils expérimentaux sont retrouvés, de même que les caractéristiques des différents domaines, validant l’approche et sa capacité à simuler efficacement les évolutions des processus de précipitation. / In the aeronautic industry, the friction stir welding (FSW) process is seen as an interesting option to lighten aircraft structure by replacing the standard riveting technology used to join parts. Numerical simulation is chosen to improve understanding of the different mechanisms occurring during FSW. The aluminum alloy studied is an AA2024-T3 grade. Its mechanical properties mainly derive from structural hardening mechanisms. An accurate model of precipitate evolution is essential to define hardness profile of the weld. The chosen simulation has to be robust and time-efficient in order to be suitable for the FSW process modeling. It must consider the two families of precipitates (GPB zones and S phase) and model nucleation, growth and coarsening phenomena. A PSD model is chosen and coupled with thermodynamic equilibrium calculations. To define the growth kinetics of precipitates, an exact analytical solution is extended to a multi-component alloy. Knowing the distribution of precipitates size, the mechanical properties are defined based on an empirical model. The amount and properties of phases are initialized through non-isothermal DSC calibration and comparison between experimental heat flux and simulated one. Isothermal test is selected to establish the link between precipitation state and mechanical properties. The model is applied to the simulation of microstructural evolution in FSW in order to predict the final properties of the weld. Thermal changes are determined through the use of a macroscopic model developed during a twin project within the Chair Daher. Numerical results are compared with instrumented experiments and show a good estimate of hardness. The experimental profiles are found, as well as the characteristics of the different areas. This validates the approach and its efficiency to simulate the evolution of the precipitation process.

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Out of the known aerospace metal and alloys, Aluminium (Al) and Titanium (Ti) are important due to their unique combination of properties, such as strength, ductility and corrosion resistance etc. For these reasons, welding of these two materials, especially in the butt and lap configuration, has a significant impact for structural applications. However, welding of Al to Ti is a challenge due to wide differences in their physical properties and properties of the brittle intermetallic that are formed. Such problems in Ti-Al weld can be minimized if the temperature of welding is reduced. Therefore, many solid-state welding processes have been introduced for this system in the past few decades. Amongst these processes, Friction Stir Welding (FSW) is among the most appropriate for dissimilar materials in the butt and lap configuration, as this process involves lower temperature of processing. The present thesis is an attempt to address the issues pertaining to the friction stir welding of commercially pure Al and Ti. Though these commercially pure materials are seldom used in actual applications, where alloys such as Ti-6Al-4V and Al 2219 (and their variants) are used, this work is done to get a fundamental understanding of the underlying mechanisms during Friction Stir Welding (FSW). The study has been extended to the effect of using a thin strip of other metallic materials between Al and Ti. These inserts are likely to play a role in the formation of intermetallic and control the after effects of the formation of these intermetallic. Two metals have been chosen for this purpose, namely Zinc (Zn) and Niobium (Nb). The thesis has 8 chapters that attempts to systematically understand the process of FSW of cp-Al to cp-Ti. In Chapter 1 of the thesis, the FSW process is introduced with an emphasis on important parameters that control the welding process. In addition, a brief introduction of Al-Ti binary system is also given. Literature related to conventional solid state welding processes and friction stir welding process is presented in Chapter 2. In this chapter, previous works on the FSW of various materials is reviewed, with more emphasis on welding of aluminium to titanium. At the end of the chapter the scope and motivation of the present investigation has been outlined Chapter 3 includes the experimental details involved in the present study. In addition to the details of the processes and various characterization techniques used in the present investigation, the basic principles involved in various techniques, names as X-ray tomography, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Electron Back-Scattered Diffraction (EBSD), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Electron Probe Micro-Analysis (EPMA) have also been given. Micro-hardness and tensile tests results are also reported in this chapter. A detailed study on FSW of Al and Ti is presented in chapter 4 of the thesis. The effect of process parameters on the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties has been reported. A bottom-up approach on experimentally determining the “process window” is presented. The results emphasises on the distribution of titanium fragments and intermetallic particles in the nugget zone and their influence on mechanical properties of the weld. The microstructural evolution in the matrix is also detailed. The most noteworthy observation is substantial grain refinement in the nugget zone due to the presence of fine fragments of titanium and intermetallic. Cross-tensile tests of the samples welded under the optimised conditions fail in the retreating side of the aluminium material and has strength more than the parent material. The last section in this chapter deals with thermal stability of the microstructures. Chapter 5 deals with the use of Zn as interlayer between Al and Ti. The microstructural evolution and its effect on the mechanical properties have been examined. The investigations clearly show that FSW of Al and Ti with Zn interlayer has superior mechanical properties compared to Al-Ti welds without interlayer. The resulting microstructure has a better thermal stability. The use of Nb as interlayer has been studied in chapter 6. The microstructural investigation of the nugget zone reveals that Nb interlayer does not readily form solid solution with any of the base materials and Nb gets distributed more heterogeneously compared to Ti itself. This has led to a reduction in the strength of the weld, however, the ductility increases The thermal stability of the microstructure is poor compared to FSW of Al to Ti with Zn interlayer. In chapter 7, salient features of the different micro-mechanism operating during FSW of the investigated combinations has been discussed in detail. Finally, the outcome of the thesis has been summarized and scope for future investigation is outlined in chapter 8.

The current study focus on investigating a relationship between processing variables and microstructure evolution mechanism in 304L stainless steel subjected to hot torsion. The Gleeble 3800 with Mobile Torsion Unit (MTU) is utilized in the current study to conduct hot torsion test of 304L stainless steel. Samples are rotated at 1100℃ in the shear strain rate range of 0.02s-1 to 4.70s-1 and the shear strain range of 0.5 to 4. Orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) technique is used to collect and analyze the microstructure. At low strains (≤1) and strain rate (0.02s-1), average grain size remains relatively constant, but the lengths of DSs and LABs increase within grains. These are characteristics of the dynamic recovery (DRV). With increasing strain and strain rate, the lengths of DSs, LABs and HABs increase, accompanied by the decrease of average grain size. Subgrains with HAB segments are observed. These are characteristics of continuous dynamic recrystallization (CDRX). At strain rates greater than or equal to 0.94s-1, the fraction of deformation texture is about 3 times higher than that of rotated cube texture. The average grain size increases relative to that at a strain rate of 0.20s-1, accompanied by the increase of twin length per area. This indicates that grain growth take place after CDRX. Sigma phase is not observed in the current study due to the lack of static recrystallization (SRX) and the higher cooling rate.