Landslides of the lateral spreading type, involving brittle geological units overlying ductile terrains, are a common occurrence in the sandstone and limestone plateaux of the northern Apennines of Italy. These instability phenomena can become particularly risky, when historical towns and cultural heritage sites built on the top of them are endangered. Neverthless, the mechanisms controlling the developing of related instabilities, i.e. toppling and rock falls, at the edges of rock plateaux are not fully understood yet. In addition, the groundwater flow path developing at the contact between the more permeable units, i.e. the jointed rock slab, and the relatively impermeable clay-rich units have not been already studied in details, even if they may play a role in this kind of instability processes, acting as eventual predisposing and/or triggering factors. Field survey, Terrestrial Laser Scanner and Close Range Photogrammetry techniques, laboratory tests on the involved materials, hydrogeological monitoring and modelling, displacements evaluation and stability analysis through continuum and discontinuum numerical codes have been performed on the San Leo case study, with the aim to bring further insights for the understanding and the assessment of the slope processes taking place in this geological context. The current research permitted to relate the aquifer behaviour of the rocky slab to slope instability processes. The aquifer hosted in the fractured slab leads to the development of perennial and ephemeral springs at the contact between the two units. The related piping erosion phenomena, together with slope processes in the clay-shales led to the progressive undermining of the slab. The cliff becomes progressively unstable due to undermining and undergoes large-scale landslides due to fall or topple.

The work undertaken in this PhD thesis is aimed at the development and testing of an innovative methodology for the assessment of the vulnerability of coastal areas to marine catastrophic inundation (tsunami). Different approaches are used at different spatial scales and are applied to three different study areas: 1. The entire western coast of Thailand 2. Two selected coastal suburbs of Sydney – Australia 3. The Aeolian Islands, in the South Tyrrhenian Sea – Italy I have discussed each of these cases study in at least one scientific paper: one paper about the Thailand case study (Dall’Osso et al., in review-b), three papers about the Sydney applications (Dall’Osso et al., 2009a; Dall’Osso et al., 2009b; Dall’Osso and Dominey-Howes, in review) and one last paper about the work at the Aeolian Islands (Dall’Osso et al., in review-a). These publications represent the core of the present PhD thesis. The main topics dealt with are outlined and discussed in a general introduction while the overall conclusions are outlined in the last section.

The present work concerns with the study of debris flows and, in particular, with the related hazard in the Alpine Environment. During the last years several methodologies have been developed to evaluate hazard associated to such a complex phenomenon, whose velocity, impacting force and inappropriate temporal prediction are responsible of the related high hazard level. This research focuses its attention on the depositional phase of debris flows through the application of a numerical model (DFlowz), and on hazard evaluation related to watersheds morphometric, morphological and geological characterization. The main aims are to test the validity of DFlowz simulations and assess sources of errors in order to understand how the empirical uncertainties influence the predictions; on the other side the research concerns with the possibility of performing hazard analysis starting from the identification of susceptible debris flow catchments and definition of their activity level. 25 well documented debris flow events have been back analyzed with the model DFlowz (Berti and Simoni, 2007): derived form the implementation of the empirical relations between event volume and planimetric and cross section inundated areas, the code allows to delineate areas affected by an event by taking into account information about volume, preferential flow path and digital elevation model (DEM) of fan area. The analysis uses an objective methodology for evaluating the accuracy of the prediction and involve the calibration of the model based on factors describing the uncertainty associated to the semi empirical relationships. The general assumptions on which the model is based have been verified although the predictive capabilities are influenced by the uncertainties of the empirical scaling relationships, which have to be necessarily taken into account and depend mostly on errors concerning deposited volume estimation. In addition, in order to test prediction capabilities of physical-based models, some events have been simulated through the use of RAMMS (RApid Mass MovementS). The model, which has been developed by the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL) in Birmensdorf and the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research (SLF) takes into account a one-phase approach based on Voellmy rheology (Voellmy, 1955; Salm et al., 1990). The input file combines the total volume of the debris flow located in a release area with a mean depth. The model predicts the affected area, the maximum depth and the flow velocity in each cell of the input DTM. Relatively to hazard analysis related to watersheds characterization, the database collected by the Alto Adige Province represents an opportunity to examine debris-flow sediment dynamics at the regional scale and analyze lithologic controls. With the aim of advancing current understandings about debris flow, this study focuses on 82 events in order to characterize the topographic conditions associated with their initiation , transportation and deposition, seasonal patterns of occurrence and examine the role played by bedrock geology on sediment transfer.

The carbonate outcrops of the anticline of Monte Conero (Italy) were studied in order to characterize the geometry of the fractures and to establish their influence on the petrophysical properties (hydraulic conductivity) and on the vulnerability to pollution. The outcrops form an analog for a fractured aquifer and belong to the Maiolica Fm. and the Scaglia Rossa Fm. The geometrical properties of fractures such as orientation, length, spacing and aperture were collected and statistically analyzed. Five types of mechanical fractures were observed: veins, joints, stylolites, breccias and faults. The types of fractures are arranged in different sets and geometric assemblages which form fracture networks. In addition, the fractures were analyzed at the microscale using thin sections. The fracture age-relationships resulted similar to those observed at the outcrop scale, indicating that at least three geological episodes have occurred in Monte Conero. A conceptual model for fault development was based on the observations of veins and stylolites. The fracture sets were modelled by the code FracSim3D to generate fracture network models. The permeability of a breccia zone was estimated at microscale by and point counting and binary image methods, whereas at the outcrop scale with Oda’s method. Microstructure analysis revealed that only faults and breccias are potential pathways for fluid flow since all veins observed are filled with calcite. According this, three scenarios were designed to asses the vulnerability to pollution of the analogue aquifer: the first scenario considers the Monte Conero without fractures, second scenario with all observed systematic fractures and the third scenario with open veins, joints and faults/breccias. The fractures influence the carbonate aquifer by increasing its porosity and hydraulic conductivity. The vulnerability to pollution depends also on the presence of karst zones, detric zones and the material of the vadose zone.

Throughout the alpine domain, shallow landslides represent a serious geologic hazard, often causing severe damages to infrastructures, private properties, natural resources and in the most catastrophic events, threatening human lives. Landslides are a major factor of landscape evolution in mountainous and hilly regions and represent a critical issue for mountainous land management, since they cause loss of pastoral lands. In several alpine contexts, shallow landsliding distribution is strictly connected to the presence and condition of vegetation on the slopes. With the aid of high-resolution satellite images, it's possible to divide automatically the mountainous territory in land cover classes, which contribute with different magnitude to the stability of the slopes. The aim of this research is to combine EO (Earth Observation) land cover maps with ground-based measurements of the land cover properties. In order to achieve this goal, a new procedure has been developed to automatically detect grass mantle degradation patterns from satellite images. Moreover, innovative surveying techniques and instruments are tested to measure in situ the shear strength of grass mantle and the geomechanical and geotechnical properties of these alpine soils. Shallow landsliding distribution is assessed with the aid of physically based models, which use the EO-based map to distribute the resistance parameters across the landscape. / In tutto l'arco alpino, le frane superficiali rappresentano un rischio estremamente attuale che ogni anno causa ingenti danni alle infrastrutture, alle proprietà e, nei casi più tragici, provocano perdite umane. Le frane superficiali rappresentano un importante fattore di evoluzione del paesaggio alpino in quanto provocano perdita di suolo e modificano quindi la distribuzione dei terreni adibiti al pascolo. L'analisi dei meccanismi di innesco delle frane superficiali e la loro distribuzione, deve essere condotta partendo da una profonda conoscenza dei parametri geomeccanici che caratterizzano il suolo e soprassuolo. Nell'area di studio, un bacino montano situato tra i 1900 e i 2400 m s.l.m., la maggior parte dei versanti è ricoperta da un fitto manto erboso, il Nardetum; questa copertura vegetale tuttavia, presenta degli evidenti pattern di degradazione, causati dall'intesa attività pastorizia. Nelle zone in cui il manto erboso è danneggiato, le resistenze calano drasticamente, aumentando quindi la vulnerabilità al franamento superficiale. L'obiettivo di questo lavoro è quello di combinare la suddivisione del territorio, fatta attraverso tecniche di classificazione automatica delle immagini satellitari alle proprietà geomeccaniche e geotecniche delle diverse coperture. La caratterizzazione di queste proprietà del suolo e soprassuolo è stata condotta utilizzando sia strumenti e metodi tradizionali, sia tecniche innovative e strumenti sperimentali. Infine per studiare la distribuzione delle frane superficiali, i dati raccolti in campagna e suddivisi nelle diverse classi di copertura, sono stati inseriti in modelli di stabilità dei versanti.

Lo scopo di questa tesi di dottorato è la comparazione di metodi per redarre mappe della vulnerabilità degli acquiferi all’inquinamento. Sono state redatte le mappe di vulnerabilità dell’acquifero della conoide del Reno utilizzando i metodi parametrici SINTACS (Civita e De Maio, 1997) e DRASTIC (Aller et al., 1987). E' stato elaborato un modello tridimensionale del flusso tramite l'utilizzo del software di modellistica numerica FEFLOW. I risultati ottenuti sono stati confrontati con le mappe derivanti dall'appllicazione dei PCSM. E’ stato, inoltre, approfondito lo sviluppo di un modello inverso, che, partendo dalla distruzione del carico piezometrico, fornisce la distribuzione della conducibilità idraulica dell’acquifero.La conoscenza di questo parametro è, infatti, il punto di partenza per lo sviluppo di un nuovo metodo per la definizione della vulnerabilità basato sulla caratterizzazione dell'area di acquifero potenzialmente inquinabile rispetto ad uno sversamento in superficie di un inquinante.L’indice di vulnerabilità viene definito sulla lunghezza del cammino che un inquinante percorrere nell’arco di un anno.

L'Appenino Emiliano è tra le zone più franose al mondo; i fenomeni che la interessano sono abbastanza lenti e quindi mai catastrofici, ma, vista la loro diffusione, molto dannosi per le infrastrutture. La ricerca della pericolosità associata alle frane si distingue in previsione spaziale e previsione temporale; la prima, detta anche suscettività, è il tema del presente lavoro. La suscettività è volta alla realizzazione di carte di propensione al dissesto, relative e indipendenti dal tempo. Dall'inizio degli anni '90 sono disponibili in letteratura diversi modelli per rispondere a questa esigenza, i quali sono generalmente costituiti da una componente geo-meccanica (di solito il modello del Pendio Infinito) e una idrologica. Il presente lavoro si concentra su quest'ultima che, nei diversi modelli, presenta la maggiore varietà, e cerca di capire quale sia il contributo che questa componente può dare all'analisi di suscettività in un'area argillosa. Per valutare questo contributo, sono stati applicati ad un'area di studio rappresentativa, diversi modelli fisicamente basati noti in letteratura o creati appositamente. Le informazioni dinamiche dei modelli transitori sono state integrate nel tempo secondo diversi metodi che tengono conto della permanenza delle condizioni critiche nel versante. I risultati dell'analisi suggeriscono che, nell'area di studio, e presumibilmente nelle aree a prevalenza argillosa in genere, per la determinazione della suscettività alle frane, il contributo di un modello fisicamente basato, completo di componente geo-meccanica e componente idrologica accoppiate, è assolutamente trascurabile rispetto ad un semplice modello geo-meccanico basato sulla sola pendenza come quello del Pendio Infinito. Le indicazioni provenienti da un modello completo possono essere ridondanti o addirittura fuorvianti se questo non è adatto alle caratteristiche dell'area in studio e ben calibrato.

L’acquifero freatico costiero ravennate è intensamente salinizzato fino a diversi km nell’entroterra. Il corpo dell’acquifero è formato da sabbie che poggiano su un substrato argilloso ad una profondità media di 25 m, i depositi affioranti sono sabbie e argille. Il lavoro svolto consiste in una caratterizzazione dello stato di salinizzazione con metodologie indirette (geoelettrica) e metodologie dirette (letture dei parametri fisici delle acque in pozzo). I sondaggi elettrici verticali (V.E.S.) mostrano stagionalità dovuta alle differenti quantità di pioggia e quindi di ricarica, le aree con depositi superficiali ad alta conducibilità idraulica (sabbie) hanno una lente d’acqua dolce compresa tra 0,1 e 2,25 m di spessore, al di sotto della quale troviamo una zona di mescolamento con spessori che vanno da 1,00 a 12,00 m, mentre quando in superficie abbiamo depositi a bassa conducibilità idraulica (limi sabbiosi e argille sabbiose) la lente d’acqua dolce scompare e la zona di mescolamento è sottile. Le misure dirette in pozzo mostrano una profondità della tavola d’acqua quasi ovunque sotto il livello del mare in entrambi i mesi monitorati, Giugno e Dicembre 2010, presentando una profondità leggermente maggiore nel mese di Dicembre. Dalla ricostruzione litologica risulta un acquifero composto da 4×109 m3 di sabbia, per cui ipotizzando una porosità media del 30% sono presenti 1,2×109 m3 di acqua. Dalla modellazione numerica (Modflow-SEAWAT 2000) risulta che l’origine dell’acqua salata che si trova in falda trova più facilmente spiegazione ipotizzando la sua presenza fin dalla formazione dell’acquifero, residuo delle acque marine che regredivano. Un’altra problematica analizzata è valutare l’applicazione della metodologia a minifiltri in uno studio sulla salinizzazione delle acque di falda. É stata implementata la costruzione di un transetto sperimentale, che ha permesso la mappatura dell’interfaccia acqua dolce/salmastra/salata con una precisione finora non raggiungibile. / The coastal phreatic aquifer of the Ravenna province is salinized up to several kilometers inland. The aquifer is mostly made up of sand and overlays a clay substrate at an average 25 m depth. A characterization of the salinization has been carried out with indirect methods (Geoelectrical method) and direct methods (Physical parameters measurements of groundwater in wells). The vertical electrical sounding (V.E.S.) method shows a seasonality of the salinization of the water due to a different rainfall rate in time, furthermore, where the top of the aquifer has a high hydraulic conductivity (sand) there are freshwater lenses (between 0.1 and 2.25 m in thickness) floating on saltwater and a thick mixing zone (between 1.00 and 12 m in thickness), whereas if the top of the aquifer has a low hydraulic conductivity (silty sand, clayish sand), the freshwater lens is absent and the mixing zone is thin. In most of the area the water table is below mean sea level in both the monitoring periods, June and December 2010. In December, it is a bit deeper than in June. From the lithological reconstruction, an aquifer composed by 4×109 m3 of sand results, assuming a porosity of 30% there are 1,2×109 m3 of water. The numerical modeling (Modflow-SEAWAT 2000) shows that the origin of the salt water in the aquifer is more easily explained by assuming its presence since the formation of the aquifer, a remnant of the marine waters recede. Finally, another issue addressed in this thesis is the monitoring method to be applied in a study on salinization of groundwater. To do this we have tested the experimental methodology of mini filters.This method allowed mapping of the interfaces fresh/ brackish/salt water with an accuracy previously not attainable.

Chlorinated solvents are the most ubiquitous organic contaminants found in groundwater since the last five decades. They generally reach groundwater as Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (DNAPL). This phase can migrate through aquifers, and also through aquitards, in ways that aqueous contaminants cannot. The complex phase partitioning to which chlorinated solvent DNAPLs can undergo (i.e. to the dissolved, vapor or sorbed phase), as well as their transformations (e.g. degradation), depend on the physico-chemical properties of the contaminants themselves and on features of the hydrogeological system. The main goal of the thesis is to provide new knowledge for the future investigations of sites contaminated by DNAPLs in alluvial settings, proposing innovative investigative approaches and emphasizing some of the key issues and main criticalities of this kind of contaminants in such a setting. To achieve this goal, the hydrogeologic setting below the city of Ferrara (Po plain, northern Italy), which is affected by scattered contamination by chlorinated solvents, has been investigated at different scales (regional and site specific), both from an intrinsic (i.e. groundwater flow systems) and specific (i.e. chlorinated solvent DNAPL behavior) point of view. Detailed investigations were carried out in particular in one selected test-site, known as “Caretti site”, where high-resolution vertical profiling of different kind of data were collected by means of multilevel monitoring systems and other innovative sampling and analytical techniques. This allowed to achieve a deep geological and hydrogeological knowledge of the system and to reconstruct in detail the architecture of contaminants in relationship to the features of the hosting porous medium. The results achieved in this thesis are useful not only at local scale, e.g. employable to interpret the origin of contamination in other sites of the Ferrara area, but also at global scale, in order to address future remediation and protection actions of similar hydrogeologic settings.