Num ecossistema de pastagem a interceptação da luz incidente é o passo inicial de uma seqüência de eventos que resulta na produção de forragem. Vários são os fatores que interferem no processo de interceptação da luz e, dentre eles, os mais expressivos são aqueles relacionados com o índice de área foliar, com as características estruturais e com o arranjo espacial de componentes do dossel forrageiro. O presente experimento teve como objetivo estudar a estrutura do dossel, a interceptação luminosa e o acúmulo de forragem em pastos de Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu submetidos a lotação contínua por bovinos de corte. O experimento foi conduzido no Departamento de Zootecnia da USP/ESALQ. Os tratamentos corresponderam a quatro alturas de dossel (10, 20, 30 e 40 cm) mantidas constantes por meio de lotação contínua e taxa de lotação variável. O delineamento experimental foi o de blocos completos casualizados com quatro repetições. As variáveis estudadas foram: índice de área foliar (IAF), ângulo foliar, interceptação de luz, composição botânica/morfológica da forragem, distribuição vertical dos componentes do dossel forrageiro e acúmulo de forragem. A composição da massa de forragem dos pastos não apresentou grande variação entre tratamentos, principalmente no que diz respeito à porcentagem de hastes (27%) e de folhas (21%). A quantidade absoluta e a porcentagem de material morto em relação aos outros componentes morfológicos do dossel aumentaram do verão (30%) até o início da primavera (61%). Quanto maior a altura do dossel, maior foi o deslocamento dos componentes morfológicos ao longo de seu perfil vertical durante o ano. Reduções acentuadas nos valores de IAF dos pastos mantidos a 20 (5,2 para 1,6), 30 (7,0 para 1,5) e 40 cm (7,5 para 2,1) do verão ao início da primavera, respectivamente, não foram acompanhadas por reduções em interceptação luminosa, que se manteve consistentemente acima de 98%. O componente material morto interferiu de foma significativa na interceptação de luz, além de ter apresentado um padrão “dinâmico” de posicionamento no perfil vertical do dossel ao longo do ano. Essa variação na estrutura vertical do dossel foi tão maior quanto mais altos foram mantidos os pastos, e seu efeito sobre os padrões de interceptação luminosa provocou grandes variações na produção de forragem ao longo do ano. De toda a forragem produzida, 65 e praticamente 100% foi acumulada durante o final da primavera e verão nos pastos mantidos a 10 e 40 cm, respectivamente. A produção total de forragem não diferiu entre os pastos mantidos a 10, 20 e 30 cm (aproximadamente 24 ton.ha-1.ano-1), sugerindo haver grande flexibilidade de manejo para essa espécie forrageira. As modificações no sentido vertical e horizontal na estrutura do dossel forrageiro tiveram impacto maior sobre a distribuição estacional do que propriamente sobre a produção total de forragem. / In a pastoral ecossystem the interception of incident radiation is the first step of a sequence of events that results in herbage production. Several are the factors interfering on the light interception process including sward leaf area index, structure and architecture. The objective of this experiment was to study sward struture, light interception and herbage acummulation of Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu pastures submitted to continuous stocking by beef cattle. The experiment was carried out at Departamento de Zootecnia, USP/ESALQ. Treatments correspondended to four sward heights (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm) kept constant through continuous stocking and variable stocking rate, allocated to experimental units according to a complete randomized block design with four replications. The response variables evaluated were sward leaf area index (LAI), foliage angle, light interception, botanical and morphological composition and hebarge production. There was no significant change in hebarge mass composition with stems representing 27% and leaves 21% of the sward. Quantity and proportion of dead material relative to the other sward morphological components increased from Summer (30%) to early Spring (61%). The taller the swards, the larger was the shift in the position of the morphological components across the vertical sward profile throughout the year. Significant reductions in LAI values for the 20 cm (5,2 to 1,6), 30 cm (7,0 to 1,5) and 40 cm swards (7,5 to 2,1) from Summer to early Spring were not followed by reduction in light interception, which remained above 98% consistent by through out the year around. The dead material component played an important role on sward light interception, and its placement across the vertical sward profile exhibited a “dynamic” pattern of variation. This variation was more evident in taller swards and affected sward light interception, resulting in varying seasonalities of herbage production. From the total herbage yield, 65 and 100% was produced during late Spring and Summer on the 10 and 40 cm swards, respectively. There was no difference in total herbage production among swards maintained at 10, 20 and 30 cm (24 ton.ha-1.year-1), sugesting that there is a large flexibilitty in grazing management for Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu. Modifications in both vertical and horizontal structure of the sward were more effective in changing the seasonal pattern of herbage production than determining herbage yield.

A crucial step in the drug discovery and development process is the assessment of membrane permeability properties of new chemical entities and researchers are constantly searching for cost-effective, high through-put models with as high as possible predictive value. In addition, a thorough understanding of the membrane permeability pathways and metabolism mechanisms are required when evaluating drug disposition and pharmacokinetics. Various in vitro methods/techniques are available to measure the rate of permeation of compounds across epithelial cell membranes to estimate oral drug absorption in humans. The aim of this study is to compare three in vitro models (i.e. excised rat intestinal tissue, excised pig intestinal tissue and Caco-2 human cell cultures) in terms of drug permeability characteristics by means of different techniques including the Ussing type Sweetana-Grass diffusion chamber apparatus, everted sac glass apparatus and the Transwell® plate apparatus. The transport of abacavir sulphate was determined in two directions (i.e. apical-to-basolateral or AP - BL and basolateral-to-apical or BL - AP) across excised rat intestinal tissue, excised pig intestinal tissue and Caco-2 cell monolayers. The test solution was applied to the donor side and samples (200 μl) were drawn from the acceptor side at 20 min intervals for a period of 2 h. The concentration of abacavir in the samples was then measured by means of a validated high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. The transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured before and after each transport experiment to give an indication of the integrity of the cell membranes. The apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) and efflux ratio (ER) values were calculated and used to compare the different methods and techniques in terms of drug permeation characteristics. All three of the in vitro methods, in all of the techniques employed, showed higher transport of abacavir in the BL - AP direction than in the AP - BL direction. This indicates that all three in vitro methods had intact active efflux transporters over the entire study period. The excised rat intestinal method showed similar drug permeability characteristics in both techniques compared to that of the Caco-2 cell monolayers. In contrast, the excised pig intestinal method only showed similar drug permeability characteristics in the Sweetana-Grass diffusion apparatus when compared to the Caco-2 cell monolayers. This phenomenon can possibly be explained by the relatively large surface area of the pig tissue used in the everted sac technique where the role of physiological and other factors take effect. These factors may include the thickness of the membrane and mucus layer as well as variables such as diet, age, gender and size of the pigs obtained from the abattoir that cannot be controlled. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A crucial step in the drug discovery and development process is the assessment of membrane permeability properties of new chemical entities and researchers are constantly searching for cost-effective, high through-put models with as high as possible predictive value. In addition, a thorough understanding of the membrane permeability pathways and metabolism mechanisms are required when evaluating drug disposition and pharmacokinetics. Various in vitro methods/techniques are available to measure the rate of permeation of compounds across epithelial cell membranes to estimate oral drug absorption in humans. The aim of this study is to compare three in vitro models (i.e. excised rat intestinal tissue, excised pig intestinal tissue and Caco-2 human cell cultures) in terms of drug permeability characteristics by means of different techniques including the Ussing type Sweetana-Grass diffusion chamber apparatus, everted sac glass apparatus and the Transwell® plate apparatus. The transport of abacavir sulphate was determined in two directions (i.e. apical-to-basolateral or AP - BL and basolateral-to-apical or BL - AP) across excised rat intestinal tissue, excised pig intestinal tissue and Caco-2 cell monolayers. The test solution was applied to the donor side and samples (200 μl) were drawn from the acceptor side at 20 min intervals for a period of 2 h. The concentration of abacavir in the samples was then measured by means of a validated high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. The transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) was measured before and after each transport experiment to give an indication of the integrity of the cell membranes. The apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) and efflux ratio (ER) values were calculated and used to compare the different methods and techniques in terms of drug permeation characteristics. All three of the in vitro methods, in all of the techniques employed, showed higher transport of abacavir in the BL - AP direction than in the AP - BL direction. This indicates that all three in vitro methods had intact active efflux transporters over the entire study period. The excised rat intestinal method showed similar drug permeability characteristics in both techniques compared to that of the Caco-2 cell monolayers. In contrast, the excised pig intestinal method only showed similar drug permeability characteristics in the Sweetana-Grass diffusion apparatus when compared to the Caco-2 cell monolayers. This phenomenon can possibly be explained by the relatively large surface area of the pig tissue used in the everted sac technique where the role of physiological and other factors take effect. These factors may include the thickness of the membrane and mucus layer as well as variables such as diet, age, gender and size of the pigs obtained from the abattoir that cannot be controlled. / MSc (Pharmaceutics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The intent of this thesis is to clarify my artistic working process as well as the resulting thesis exhibition, Only the lull I like, the hum of your valved voice. I will provide explanations and descriptions of my exhibition (comprising a select placement of objects) as well as offer antecedents, informants, and the evolution of my art practice as a whole during my graduate studies. Specifically the work is discussed through the lenses of situational aesthetics, conceptual relationships, and perceptual absence to argue for the complicated semantics of the viewer within an ontology of object-hood and pre-established conditions.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2003. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A common topographical feature of the Nama-Karoo are mesas, commonly known as "platkoppies" , that provide an interesting source of landscape heterogeneity to an otherwise flat landscape. Although these isolated mesas are geologically and edaphically distinct from the surrounding flats, many species are shared between these habitats. These include palatable species such as Themeda triandra. A question asked by the broad umbrella project under which this project falls was: to what extent do mesas provide refuges for palatable species that are under pressure from heavy overstocking on the surrounding flats? A study on the regeneration potential of T triandra on and off the Tafelberg Mesa in the Middelburg district of the Eastern Cape, South Africa, was undertaken within the context of a broader umbrella project "Restoration of degraded Nama-Karoo: role of conservation islands". The Nama-Karoo has had centuries of heavy commercial livestock production and it is considered to have been transformed from a relatively (by arid ecosystems) productive system to one dominated by shrubs and somewhat less productive species. Themeda triandra is one of the preferred grass species for livestock production. Although T. triandra is a preferred grass species, relatively, little is known about its ability to produce viable seed and the establishment of seedlings particularly in restoration and rehabilitation programmes. This study examines the pattern of seed production and seedling survival, seed dispersal, seed germination, and the morphological and ecophysiological variability of T. triandra, a species with great potential for restoration of degraded Nama-Karoo sites, particularly those in the Eastern Cape. Themeda triandra was found to be one of the dominant species on summit of the Tafelberg Mesa. In comparison, it occurred in small isolated populations on the flats surrounding the mesa. The flats and slopes are grazed more intensely by domestic livestock than the summit of the mesa. This is due to the inaccessibility to livestock due to a steeper topography and the lack of water at the higher altitudes. Annual seed production of T. triandra per plant and per m2 was highest for the populations on the flats despite these populations being grazed most intensively. Rainfall had an effect on annual seed production, which was monitored over two years. Rainfall increased from less than 20mm in November 1999 to 125, 110, 50 and 135mm in December 1999, January 2000, February 2000 and March 2000 respectively. With the increased rainfall prior to the May 2000 sampling period, more seeds were produced per plant and per m2 for the flats and slopes habitats of the Tafelberg Mesa. The opposite trend occurred on the summit of the mesa, where seed production actually decreased. This could be attributed to increased competition or to lower grazing intensities. Increase in rainfall also had a positive effect on the cover of other grasses (excluding T. triandra) and T. triandra itself. Despite higher levels of seed production in populations of T. triandra on the flats, seedling survival was clearly low whereas seedlings on the slopes and summit had significantly higher seedling survivorship. This negative impact could be explained due to the trampling effect of domestic herbivores. The results of a seed dispersal experiment clearly suggest that the seed dispersal distance of T. triandra to "safe" microsites is short distance (majority of seeds disperse up to 60cm) and that the dispersal agent is wind. Microsites for re-establishment was found to be open or rocky sites. In a controlled experiment, seed emergence of T. triandra indicated that optimal sowing depths varied with soil type. Maximum germination was achieved at sowing depth 2cm and 3cm in soil collected from the flats surrounding the Tafelberg Mesa. The soil texture of the flats was found to be more sandy loam clay. The flats had slightly higher content (%) of stone, clay, silt and sand compared to the soils collected from the summit and slopes. Themeda triandra is clearly not limited in its expansion onto the flats in the Middelburg district due to soil conditions at the germination/recruitment phase. This study also revealed that T. triandra germinates best under summer conditions when the probability of rainfall is at its highest. Results with T. triandra seed did not convincingly suggest that smoke water is of adaptive significance to boost germination in restoration attempts in the Middelburg district of the Eastern Cape. In a controlled greenhouse experiment, individuals of T. triandra taken from the summit of Tafelberg Mesa showed no differences in photosynthesis, stomatal conductance or transpiration rates to individuals occurring on the flatland areas surrounding the mesa. Themeda triandra appears to be relatively adaptable to a range of temperature conditions. These findings suggest that there should be no problem using seed from mesa summits in restoration programmes on the surrounding flats. This study revealed no conclusive evidence, indicating that the populations on the summit of the mesa were a source of T. triandra seed for the flats surrounding the Tafelberg Mesa. However, this two year long investigation found that T. triandra has the potential to be used in restoration and rehabilitation programmes. If released from grazing pressures, and assuming favourable climatic conditions, the density of T. triandra on the flats can be increased and can be used as a suitable species for the restoration of heavily degraded patches in the Nama-Karoo Region. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: OnAlgemene topografiese kenmerk van die Nama-Karoo is mesas, plaaslik bekend as "platkoppies", wat Oninteressante bron van landskap ongelyksoortigheid voorsien aan On andersins vlakte landskap. Alhoewel hierdie geisoleerde mesas geologies en biofisies verskillend is van die omliggende vlaktes, word baie plant spesies gedeel tussen hierdie habitats. Hierdie sluit in smaaklike spesies soos Themeda triandra. OnVraag gevra deur die groter restorasieekologieprojek waaronder hierdie navorsingsprojek resorteer was: tot watter mate dien mesas as ° n hawe aan vreetbare spesies wat onder druk is van swaar oorbeweiding in die omliggende vlaktes? OnStudie van die regenerasie potensiaal van T. triandra op-en-vanaf die Tafelberg Mesa in die Middelburg distrik van die Oos-Kaap, Suid-Afrika, was onderneem binne die verband van die wyer herstelekologieprojek "Herstel van oorbeweide Nama-Karoo weiveld: die rol van bewaringseilande". Die Nama-Karoo was vir honderde jare al blootgestel aan swaar kommersiële lewende hawe produksie en is klaarblyklik verander van ° n relatiewe produktiewe sisteem na 'n ekosisteem gedomineerd deur struike en enigsins minder produktiewe spesies. Alhoewel dit ° n verkiesde grasspesie is bo ander inheemse grasse as weigras, is min bekend oor die fertiliteit van T. triandra sade of oor die vestiging van saailinge, veral in veldrehabilitasie programme. Hierdie studie ondersoek die patrone van saadproduksie, saadverspreiding, saadontkieming, en die morfologiese en ekofisiologiese veranderlikheid van T. triandra, ° n spesie met groot potensiaal vir die herstel van oorbeweide Nama-Karoo terriene van veral die Oos-Kaap. Themeda triandra was een van die dominante spesies op die kruin van die Tafelberg Mesa. Dit kom voor in klein geïsoleerde populasies op die uitgestrekte vlaktes rondom die mesa. Die vlaktes en hange van die mesa word op groot skaaloorbewei deur lewende hawe in vergelyking met op die kruin van die mesa. Dit is te wyte aan die onbereikbaarheid van die mesa vanweë Onsteiler topografie, asook die gebrek aan standhoudende water op die mesa's self. Jaarlikse saad produksie van T. triandra per plant en per m2 was die hoogste vir die populasies op die vlaktes, ten spyte daarvan dat hierdie populasies intensief bewei word. Reënval het 'n effek op jaarlikse saad produksie gehad wat oor twee jaar gekontroleer was. Met die vermeerdering van reënval voor die Mei 2000 proeftydperk, was meer sade geproduseer per plant en per m2 op die vlaktes en hange van die Tafelberg Mesa. Die teenoorgestelde patroon het voor gekom op die kruin van die mesa, waar saadproduksie afgeneem het. Laasgenoemde kan toegeskryf word aan die toename in kompetisie. Toename in reënval het ook 'n positiewe effek gehad op die bedekking van T. triandra self sowel as van ander grasse. Ten spyte van hoër vlakke van saadproduksie, is saailing oorlewing in T. triandra populasies op die vlaktes duidelik negatief terwyl saailinge op die hange en kruin 'n betekenisvolle hoër saailing oorlewingsskap gehad het. Die negatiewe impak kan verduidelik word deur die vertrappings-effek van lewende hawe. Die resultate van die saadvespreidingeksperiment toon dat die saadverspreiding afstand van T. triandra na 'veilige' mikroterreine kort is (die meerderheid van die sade is tot minder as 60cm versprei). Wind is die verspreidingsagent. Dit is gevind dat oop of klipperige terreine gunstige mikroterreine vir hervestiging van T. triandra is. In die gekontroleerde-eksperiment het saadverskyning van T. triandra aangedui dat die optimale saai-diepte wissel met grondsoort. Maksimum ontkieming is behaal by saaidiepte van 2cm en 3cm in die grond versamel in die vlaktes rondom die Tafelberg Mesa. Die grondtekstuur op die vlaktes is 'n sanderige leem-klei. Die vlaktes het effens hoër persentasies klip, klei, slik en sand vergelyke met die grond versamelop die kruin en hange. Themeda triandra is duidelik nie as gevolg van grondtoestande beperk in sy uitbreiding op vlaktes in die Middelburg distrik by die ontkieming/werwing fase. Gondtoestande tydens die ontkiemingsfase is duidelik niw beperkend op die gigthede van T. triandra op die vlaktes nie. Hierdie studie maak bekend dat T. triandra die beste ontkiem onder somer toestande wanneer die waarskynlikheid van reënval op sy hoogste is. Rookwater het geen effect op die ontkiemingspotensiaal van T. triandra in die Middelburg streek van die Oos-Kaap nie. Pogings om T. triandra saad se ontkieming met rookwaterekstrak te bevorder was onsuksesvol. In die gekontroleerde eksperiment het individue van T. triandra op die kruin van Tafelberg Mesa geen verskil getoon in fotosintese, huidmondjie begeleiding en transpirasie tempo nie in vergelyking met individue wat voorkom op die vlaktes rondom die mesa. Themeda triandra blyk relatief aanpasbaar te wees aan 'n wye reeks van temperatuur toestande. Hierdie bevindings dui aan dat daar geen probleem hoef te wees om sade van die kruin van die mesa te gebruik in hervestigig-programme in die omliggende vlaktes nie. Hierdie studie verskaf geen bewyse wat aandui dat die T. triandra bevolkings op die kruin van die mesa as Onbron van saad vir die vlaktes rondom die Tafelberg Mesa dien nie. Hierdie twee-jaar ondersoek vind dat T. triandra 'n potensiaal het om gebruik te word in herstel en rehabilitasie programme. As dit aan ligter weidingsruk onderwerp is en gunstige klimaatstoestande heers, kan T. triandra hervestig word op die vlaktes en gebruik word as Onplantspesie om erg beskadigde areas in die Nama-Karoo streek te herstel.

A fifteen month experiment was conducted to study the pattern of utilization of Lehmann lovegrass by cows during different seasons at three stocking rates on four patch types (grazed, open; grazed, under-mesquite; mowed, artificial; and ungrazed control) at the Santa Rita Experimental Range. The purpose of the research was to determine the influence of standing biomass, proportion of green material and nutrient content of patch types on the relative time cattle grazed patch types. Cattle biting rate on patch types was also measured. Height of leaves and flowers, dry biomass (kg/ha and %), green biomass (kg/ha) and total biomass were greater on ungrazed patches. Proportion of green was greater in grazed than ungrazed patches. Protein, phosphorus, Calcium and IVDMD were higher in green and complete samples of grazed than ungrazed patches. Cattle concentrated grazing upon upland, open grazed patches and under-mesquite canopy. These selected areas were higher in proportion of green biomass and nutrient value and lower in total standing crop and total green biomass than ungrazed areas. Nutrient density, rather than biomass appeared to govern cattle grazing.

Resumo: objetivo do presente trabalho foi relacionar as características anatômicas foliares de Brachiaria decumbens Stapf (capim-braquiária) e Brachiaria plantaginea (Link) Hitchc. (capim-marmelada), com a eficiência do controle químico em pósemergência por meio de herbicidas inibidores da enzima ACCase, visando fornecer subsídios para o manejo químico dessas espécies daninhas. A semeadura de B. decumbens e B. plantaginea foi feita em vasos plásticos contendo solo e mantidos em casa de vegetação. Para se proceder à análise anatômica foliar, foi amostrada a porção mediana do limbo da terceira folha expandida, contada a partir da base do colmo, compreendendo três estádios de desenvolvimento da planta: Estádio 1 (plantas com 4-6 folhas aos 15 dias após a emergência), Estádio 2 (plantas com 3-4 perfilhos aos 23 dias após a emergência), Estádio 3 (plantas adultas no início do florescimento aos 48 dias após a emergência). Avaliaram-se as estruturas anatômicas das regiões da quilha (nervura central) e da asa (porção compreendida entre a nervura central e a margem do limbo), utilizando-se de mesa digitalizadora com programa computacional específico. Os caracteres anatômicos foliares quantitativos analisados, nos três estádios de desenvolvimento, foram: área da seção transversal; porcentagens de epiderme das faces adaxial e abaxial, esclerênquima, endoderme (bainha do feixe vascular), feixe vascular e parênquima; espessura da folha; distância entre os feixes vasculares; comprimento do estômato; número de estômatos e de tricomas (curtos e longos). Os valores desses caracteres foram submetidos aos testes estatísticos multivariados de Análise de Agrupamento e Análise de Componentes Principais. Para a avaliação do controle químico foram testados os herbicidas fluazifop-p-butil na dose... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The aim of this study was to correlate the leaf anatomical characteristics of Brachiaria decumbens Stapf (signal grass) and Brachiaria plantaginea (Link) Hitchc. (Alexandergrass) with the chemical control efficacy in post-emergence through ACCase-inhibitor enzyme herbicide application in order to contribute to the chemical management of those weed species. B. decumbens and B. plantaginea were sown in plastic pots filled with soil and kept in a greenhouse. For leaf anatomical analysis, the blade median portion of the third expanded leaf, counted from the stem basis, was sampled. Plants were divided into three developmental phases: Stage 1 (plants presenting 4-6 leaves at 15 days after emergence), Stage 2 (plants presenting 3-4 tillers at 23 days after emergence), and Stage 3 (adult plants in the beginning of flowering at 48 days after emergence). Anatomical structures of keel (midrib) and wing (a portion between the midrib and the blade margin) were evaluated by using a digitizer tablet including specific software. Leaf quantitative anatomical characters analyzed in the three development stages were: transversal section area; percentages of epidermal cells in adaxial and abaxial surfaces, sclerenchyma, endodermis (vascular bundle sheath), vascular bundle, and parenchyma; leaf thickness; distance among vascular bundles; stomatal length; number of stomata and trichomes (short and long). The values of these characters were subjected to multivariate statistical tests through Cluster Analysis and Principal Component Analysis. For chemical control evaluation, the following herbicides were tested: fluazifop-p-butyl 150 g ha-1, haloxyfop-methyl 50 g ha-1 and sethoxydim 230 g ha-1. Post-emergence applications were performed in all three plant development stages, and visual evaluations were... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Orientador: Roberto Antonio Rodella / Coorientador: Dagoberto Martins / Banca: Fernando Tadeu de Carvalho / Banca: Dalva Cassie Rocha / Mestre

O manejo do pastejo, caracterizado pela freqüência e intensidade de desfolhação, determina a estrutura do dossel forrageiro. Esta, por sua vez, age como condicionadora das respostas de plantas e animais. Com a finalidade de conhecer melhor as relações de causa e efeito entre a manipulação da estrutura do dossel forrageiro e a produção animal, o presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar o acúmulo de forragem, a composição botânica e morfológica do dossel e de amostras de forragem obtidas por meio de simulação de pastejo, bem como o valor nutritivo dessas amostras e o ganho de peso de bovinos em crescimento em pastos de Brachiaria brizantha cv Marandu submetidos a regimes de lotação contínua e taxa de lotação variável. O experimento foi realizado em área do Departamento de Zootecnia da USP/ESALQ, Piracicaba, SP, entre 01 de dezembro de 2001 e 26 de dezembro de 2002. Os tratamentos corresponderam a quatro alturas de dossel forrageiro (10, 20, 30 e 40 cm) mantidas em equilíbrio dinâmico (steady state) e alocadas às unidades experimentais segundo um delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, com quatro repetições. Durante a primavera e o verão pastos mantidos mais altos (30 e 40 cm) apresentaram taxas de acúmulo de forragem mais elevadas que pastos mantidos mais baixos (10 e 20 cm) (84,2; 88,5; 133,0 e 141,5 na primavera e 116,6; 144,3; 134,4 e 135,0 kg.ha -1 .dia -1 de MS no verão para 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente). Nas épocas de outono e inverno esse padrão de resposta foi invertido, com os maiores valores de taxa de acúmulo registrados para pastos mantidos mais baixos (61,1; 61,7; 44,2 e 17,5 no outono e 22,4; 10,0; -2,2 e -22,5 kg.ha -1 .dia -1 de MS no inverno para 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente). Não houve diferença na produção total de forragem nos 13 meses de experimento (26.360 kg.ha -1 de MS em média), porém a condição do dossel forrageiro implicou em alterações significativas na distribuição estacional da produção. As proporções de folhas (21,5%) e hastes (27,8%) na massa de forragem mantiveram-se relativamente constantes para a amplitude de alturas de dossel estudada e a proporção de material morto foi menor nos pastos de 10 cm (45,3%) em relação aos demais (49,2%, em média). Nas amostras de simulação de pastejo a proporção de folhas (78,1%) foi muito superior e a de hastes (6,0%) e material morto (9,7%) muito inferiores àquelas mensuradas na massa de forragem do dossel. A forragem proveniente dos pastos de 10 cm apresentou menores proporções de folhas senescentes (2,7%) que pastos mantidos a 20, 30 e 40 cm (3,5% em média). Em termos de composição química, as maiores concentrações de matéria mineral, proteína bruta e lignina, além da digestibilidade da matéria orgânica, foram encontradas na forragem proveniente dos pastos de 10 cm (11,7; 13,7; 3,6 e 67,1%, respectivamente) relativamente às outras condições de dossel avaliadas (11,2; 12,2; 3,0 e 63,9%, respectivamente, em média). Os teores de FDN e FDA foram menores nos pastos de 10 cm (60,8 e 28,1%, respectivamente) quando comparados com os pastos mantidos a 20, 30 e 40 cm (62,0 e 29,0%, respectivamente). Na média do período experimental, a taxa de lotação decresceu com a elevação da altura do dossel forrageiro (4,1; 3,0; 2,1 e 1,2 UA.ha -1 para 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente), sendo que durante as épocas de crescimento mais favoráveis (primavera e verão) foram registrados os maiores valores do experimento. Apesar do valor nutritivo ligeiramente superior da forragem proveniente dos pastos mantidos a 10 cm, o desempenho animal aumentou com o aumento em altura do dossel (0,19; 0,51; 0,75 e 0,93 kg animal -1 .dia -1 para 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm, respectivamente). O controle e a manipulação da condição (estrutura) do dossel forrageiro interferiu de forma direta sobre a produção e o valor nutritivo da forragem, embora o desempenho animal deva ter sido determinado por diferenças em consumo de forragem para as condições de dossel estudadas, uma vez que as diferenças em valor nutritivo foram pequenas. / Grazing management, characterized by the frequency and intensity of defoliation, determines sward structure. This, in turn, defines plant and animal responses. Aiming at a better understanding of the cause and effect relationships between sward structure manipulation and animal production from pastures, the present experiment had the objective of evaluating herbage production, botanical and morphological composition of sward herbage mass and herbage samples harvested simulating grazing, as well as the nutritive value of these samples and animal performance of growing beef cattle heifers on Brachiaria brizantha cv Marandu pastures submitted to continuous stocking regimes with variable stocking rate. The experiment was carried out at Departamento de Zootecnia, USP/ESALQ, Piracicaba, SP, from 01 December 2001 until 26 December 2002. Treatments corresponded to four sward steady state conditions (10, 20, 30 and 40 cm sward surface heights - SSH), assigned to experimental units according to a complete randomized block design, with four replications. During spring and summer tall swards (30 and 40 cm) presented higher herbage accumulation rates than short swards (10 and 20 cm) (84.2, 88.5, 133.0, 141.5 and 116.6, 144.3, 134.4, 135.0 kg.ha -1 .day -1 DM for the 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm swards, respectively). In autumn and winter this pattern of response changed, with higher herbage accumulation rates measured in short swards (61.1, 61.7, 44.2, 17.5 and 22.4, 10.0, -2.2, -22.5 kg.ha -1 .day -1 DM for the 10, 20, 30 e 40 cm swards, respectively). There was no difference in herbage yield at the end of the 13-month experimental period (26,360 kg.ha -1 DM on average), although sward condition did result in significant changes in seasonal distribution of dry matter production. Proportions of leaf (21.5%) and stems (27.8%) in sward herbage mass remained relatively constant within the range of SSH studied and the proportion of dead material was lower for the 10 cm swards (45.3%) in relation to others (49.2%, on average). For the grazing simulation samples the proportion of leaves was much higher (78.1%) and stems (6.0%) and dead material (9.7%) significantly lower than that registered in sward herbage mass. Herbage from the 10 cm swards presented lower proportions of senescing leaves (2.7%) than 20, 30 and 40 cm swards (3.5%, on average). Chemically, higher concentrations of ash, crude protein and lignin, as well as organic matter digestibility, were determined in herbage samples from the 10 cm swards (11.7, 13.7, 3.6 and 67.1%, respectively) in relation to the other sward conditions studied (11.2, 12.2, 3.0 and 63.9%, respectively, on average). NDF and ADF contents were lower for 10 cm swards (60.8 and 28.1%, respectively) when compared to 20, 30 and 40 cm swards (62.0 and 29.0%, respectively). Over the entire experimental period, the stocking rate decreased with increasing SSH (4.1, 3.0, 2.1 and 1.2 AU ha -1 for 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm, respectively), but the highest values were recorded during over the spring and summer periods. Despite the slightly higher nutritive value of the herbage from the 10 cm swards, animal performance increased with increasing SSH (0.19, 0.51, 0.75 and 0.93 kg animal -1 day -1 for 10, 20, 30 and 40 cm, respectively). The control and manipulation of sward state (structure) affected herbage production and nutritive value, although animal performance was very likely determined by differences in herbage intake for the sward conditions studied since differences in nutritive value were small.

Characterization of the ontogenic program is essential to infer about palnts adaptation strategies. Frequently, morphogenesis of tropical forage grasses is reported to be analogous to that of temperate forage grasses. However, tropical grasses show stem development still during the vegetative phase of growth and under high light availability conditions. Stem elongation potentially impacts plants growth, with implications for grazing management. In tropical conditions, elephantgrass cv. Napier is considered one of the most productive grass species under grazing. The objective of this study was to characterize the ontogenic development of elephantgrass, coordination between phytomers, stem elongation and leaf and internode coordination in main and primary axes, using an isolated plant protocol. The experiment was conducted in Piracicaba, SP, during the Spring (2015), Summer (2016) and Autumn (2016), using a complete randomized block design, with 4 replicates. Eighty fiber cement tanks (0.343 m3) were used. Each block was composed of 20 tanks, 10 used to evaluate the morphogenic and developmental characteristics and 10 for the destructive evaluations. Measurements of leaf and stem elongation were performed every two days to determine the following variables: leaf appearance rate (LAR), leaf elongation rate (LER), leaf elongation duration (LED) and final leaf length (FLL). From day 10 of the evaluation period in Summer and Autumn and day 25 in Spring, 10 cuts were performed for destructive assessments every 5 days. At the time of the destructive evaluations, the following variables were measured: apical meristem heigth (AMH); sheath tube length (STL); number of expanding leaves (NEL); number of expanded leaves (NEXL). Measurements of sheath length (SL) and internode length (IL) were performed only on the main axis. On the main axis LAR (0.02 leaves degree-days-1) and LER (0.26 cm degree-days-1) were constant, whereas LED and FLL increased with leaf rank on the axis. LED ranged from 150 to 280 degree-days from phytomer 10 to 20. In Autumn, due to flowering, LED decreased with leaf rank. SL increased until reaching a maximum value of approximately 10-12 cm from the phytomer 12-13 onwards. When evaluated in phyllochronic units, similar pattern was observed across seasons of the year for a common leaf rank group. However, in all seasons, higher leaf ranks presented greater LED. Higher LAR were reported for topmost primary axes and LER increased with leaf rank until reaching a maximum, remaining constant afterwards. The LED increased with leaf rank in main and primary axes. The stem elongation began from phytomer 8 on the main axis in all seasons of the year, and in earlier phytomers for the other primary axes. In the main axis, internode length ranged from 0.5-2.0 cm for phytomer 8 until reaching a maximum value of 8-10 cm for phytomers 12-13 onwards, in Spring and Summer. During Autumn, maximum values of internode length were approximately 20 cm. Internode elongation begins concomitantly with the cessation of leaf elongation, and after 5 phyllochronic units from leaf appearance. In all axes, STL increased until reaching a maximum value of approximately 12-13 cm in Summer and 11-12 cm in Spring, coinciding with the beginning of stem elongation. The ontogenic development described for elephantgrass differs from that reported for temperate forage grasses. There was a seasonality effect. Axes development presents a hierarchical and synchronized organization. However, for the upper axes and topmost phytomers behavior is different and needs to be investigated. The stem elongation process can be described by the number of produced leaves. This study provides a key element for understanding phenotypic plasticity and corresponds to an useful information to identify the onset of stem elongation in field conditons. This result can potentially be used for functional-structural plant modelling. / A caracterização do desenvolvimento ontogênico é de fundamental importância para inferir sobre estratégias de adaptação das plantas. Frequentemente, a morfogênese de gramíneas tropicais é reportada como análoga à de gramíneas de clima temperado. No entanto, gramíneas tropicais apresentam colmo ainda na fase vegetativa e com elevada disponibilidade de luz. O alongamento de colmo potencialmente altera a dinâmica do desenvolvimento, com implicações sobre o manejo do pastejo. Em condições tropicais, o capim-elefante cv. Napier é considerado uma das gramíneas mais produtivas sob condições de pastejo. Objetivou-se com esse estudo caracterizar o desenvolvimento ontogênico do capim-elefante, a coordenação entre fitômeros, o alongamento de colmo e a coordenação entre folha e entrenó em perfilhos principais e axilares, em condições de plantas isoladas. O experimento foi conduzido em Piracicaba-SP, durante a Primavera (2015), Verão (2016) e Outono (2016), utilizando um delineamento em blocos completos casualizados, com 4 repetições. Foram instalados 80 tanques de fibrocimento (0,343 m3). Cada bloco era composto por 20 tanques, sendo que 10 foram utilizados para avaliar as características morfogênicas e de desenvolvimento e os outros 10 para as avaliações destrutivas. Medições do alongamento da lâmina foliar e do colmo foram realizadas a cada dois dias, para determinação das variáveis: taxa de aparecimento de folhas (TAF), taxa de alongamento de folhas (TAlF), duração do alongamento de folhas (DAF) e comprimento final da folha (CFF). A partir do dia 10 do período de avaliação no Verão e no Outono e do dia 25 na Primavera, foram feitos 10 cortes para avaliações destrutivas, a cada 5 dias. Por ocasião das avaliações destrutivas, as seguintes variáveis foram medidas: altura do meristema apical (AMA); comprimento do tubo de bainha (CTB); número de folhas em expansão (NFE); número de folhas expandidas (NFEX). Medições da bainha foliar (BF) e do comprimento do entreno (CE) foram realizadas apenas para o eixo principal (perfilho basal). No eixo principal, a TAF (0,02 folhas graus-dias-1) e a TAlF (0,26 cm graus-dias-1) foram constantes, enquanto que a DAF e o CFF aumentou com nível de inserção da folha no perfilho. A DAF variou de 150 a 280 graus-dias do fitômero 10 ao 20. No Outono, em função do florescimento, a DAF diminuiu com o nível de inserção da folha. O comprimento da BF foi crescente até atingir um valor máximo de aproximadamente 10-12 cm do fitômero 12-13 em diante. Quando avaliado em unidades filocrônicas, padrão semelhante foi observado entre épocas do ano para um grupo comum de níveis de inserção de folhas. No entanto, em todas as estações, níveis de inserção de folhas superiores apresentaram maiores DAF. Maiores TAF foram reportadas para eixos primários (perfilhos axilares) localizados acima do nível do solo e a TAlF foi crescente com o nível de inserção da folha até atingir um nível máximo, apartir do qual foi constante. A DAF foi crescente com o nível de inserção da folha em todos os eixos. O alongamento do colmo ocorreu a partir do fitômero 8 no eixo principal em todas as estações do ano, e em fitômeros anteriores para os demais eixos primários. No eixo principal, o CE variou de 0,5-2,0 cm no fitômero 8 até atingir valores máximos de 8-10 cm do fitômero 12-13 em diante, na Primavera e Verão. No Outono, valores máximos de entrenó foram de aproximadamente 20 cm. O alongamento do entrenó inicia-se concomitantemente ao término do alogamento da folha, e a um tempo de 5 filocronos do aparecimento da folha. Em todos os eixos, o CTB aumentou até atingir um valor máximo de aproximadamente 12-13 cm no verão e 11-12 cm na primavera, momento que coincidiu com o início do alongamento do colmo. O desenvolvimento ontogênico descrito para capim-elefante diverge daquele descrito para gramíneas de clima temperado. Houve efeito de sazonalidade. O desenvolvimento dos eixos apresenta organização hierárquica e sincronizada. No entanto, para os eixos superiores e fitômeros acima do nível do solo, o comportamento é diferente. O alongamento do colmo pode ser descrito pelo número de folhas produzidas. Este estudo fornece um elemento-chave para a compreensão da plasticidade fenotítipa e informações úteis para identificar o início do alongamento do colmo no campo. Este resultado pode ser utilizado potencialmente para modelagem de processos estrutura-função da planta.

O aquecimento global desencadeia algumas alterações ambientais, que são causadas pelo aumento da concentração dos gases do efeito estufa. As florestas têm grande importância na regulação climática, no ciclo do carbono e na conservação da biodiversidade. A vegetação remove grande quantidade de dióxido de carbono e o armazena em diferentes partes. Para medir a captura do carbono atmosférico pela vegetação, estimou-se a biomassa vegetal. Este trabalho quantificou a biomassa acima do solo para obtenção do estoque de carbono em diferentes ecossistemas com o uso de sensoriamento remoto na Fazenda Figueira, em Londrina, Paraná. A fazenda possui uma área de 3.686,64 hectares (ha), sendo 1.435,44 ha ocupados por vegetação natural e 1.865,30 ha ocupados por pastagens. A vegetação predominante é a Floresta Estacional Semidecidual (FES), além de apresentar áreas de Floresta Ribeirinha (FR), pastagens, áreas agrícolas e edificações. Para a quantificação da biomassa vegetal aérea, foram estabelecidas 30 parcelas de 300 m2 nas áreas de FES e FR para medição do DAP e foram aplicadas três diferentes equações alométricas. Em relação às gramíneas, foram estabelecidas cinco parcelas de 10mx10m com o capim Tanzânia e, após ciclo de crescimento, foram cortadas subamostras de 1 m2 para cálculo da biomassa. A partir de duas cenas do Landsat-8/OLI, foram gerados quatro Índices de Vegetação: RS, NDVI, EVI e EVI2, referentes a 2014 e 2015. A análise estatística executada foi a correlação de Pearson e a regressão stepwise para selecionar as melhores variáveis. Os resultados mostraram que a maior densidade de espécies foi encontrada na FES do que FR, porém a maior riqueza foi na FR. Ambas florestas apresentaram distribuição diamétrica irregular. Nas três equações alométricas, a biomassa e o estoque de carbono foram maiores na FES do que FR. Em relação aos Índices de Vegetação, os valores de RS, NDVI, EVI e EVI2 foram maiores na FES do que FR e valores foram maiores em 2015 do que 2014. O mesmo ocorreu para os buffers de 50 m e 100 m para todos os índices estudados. A correlação de Pearson mostrou melhor correlação da biomassa florestal total com a equação de Medina Sotomayor com EVI/2015 e a análise de regressão stepwise indicou melhor relação para equação de Burger e Delitti com EVI/2015 (R2 = 0,3742). A biomassa do capim Tanzânia apresentou média de 3,67 Mg.ha-1 e média de carbono de 1,83 MgC.ha-1. Os valores médios dos Índices de Vegetação foram 0,67 para NDVI, 0,58 para EVI, 0,54 para EVI2 e 4,80 para RS. A análise de correlação de Pearson indicou forte correlação negativa da biomassa total de pastagem com todos os índices de vegetação e os valores de buffers de 50 m e 100 m. A análise de regressão stepwise foi significativa com EVI (R2 = 0,9124). A quantificação de biomassa e carbono é importante meio para mitigação climática e as imagens Landsat-8 permitiram diferenciar, por meio de índices de vegetação, as coberturas vegetais da Fazenda Figueira. O sensoriamento remoto tem um bom potencial em estimar a biomassa acima do solo. / Global warming triggers some environmental changes, which are caused by increased concentration of greenhouse gases. Forests have great importance in climate regulation, carbon cycle, and conservation of biodiversity. Vegetation removes and stores large amounts of carbon dioxide. To measure the amount of atmospheric carbon captured by vegetation, biomass is estimated. This study quantified the aboveground biomass for obtaining carbon stocks in different ecosystems by using of remote sensing at Figueira Farm, Londrina, Paraná. The farm has an area of 3686.64 hectares (ha), of which 1435.44 ha are occupied by natural vegetation and 1865.30 ha are occupied by pastures. The predominant vegetation is semideciduous forest (FES), along with areas of riparian forest (FR), pasture, agricultural, and buildings. For quantification of above ground biomass, thirty 300 m2 plots were established in the areas of FES and FR for measurement of DBH and were applied in three allometric equations. In relation to grasses, five 10mx10m plots of Tanzania grass were established and after their growth cycle, five subsamples of 1 m2 were cut into to calculate biomass. From two scenes of Landsat-8/OLI, were generated four vegetation index: SR, NDVI, EVI and EVI2, referring to 2014 and 2015. Pearson correlation and stepwise regression were applied to select the best variables. The results showed that species density in FES was higher than FR, but the greater richness was found in the FR. Both forests had irregular diameter distribution. Using three allometric equations, the above ground biomass and carbon stocks were higher in FES than FR. The vegetation indices, values for SR, NDVI, EVI, and EVI2 were higher in FES than FR and values were higher in 2015 than in 2014. The same difference between FES and FR occurred with buffers of 50 m to 100 m for all indices studied. Pearson correlation analysis showed a better correlation of total forest biomass with the Medina Sotomayor equation with EVI/2015 and stepwise regression analysis indicated a better value to the Burger and Delitti equation with EVI/2015 (R2 = 0.3742). Biomass of Tanzania grass showed an average biomass of 3.67 Mg.ha-1 and average carbon of 1.83 MgC.ha-1. The average vegetation indices were 0.67 for NDVI, 0.58 for EVI, 0.54 for EVI2, and 4.80 for SR. The pearson correlation analysis indicated a strong negative correlation among the total pasture biomass of among the and all vegetation indices and buffers of 50 m and 100 m. The stepwise regression analysis showed significant correlation with EVI (R2 = 0.9124). The quantification of biomass and carbon is an important way of climate mitigation and Landsat-8 images differentiate the vegetation covers of the Figueira Farm, throught vegetation indices. Remote sensing has good potential to provide data for estimating the above ground biomass.