In recent years, the provision of formal coach education has been regarded as a crucial mechanism for endorsing sports coaching and facilitating sports coaching practitioners’ professional development and competency. As a result, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of sports coaching research scholars investigating formal coach education. Previous research however has recognised that formal coach education has had a limited impact on learning and professional development. In addition, the research surrounding females in sports coaching, and in particular their experiences of formal coach education, is limited. It is considered an under-researched area, and currently it is unclear why females are under-represented in formal coach education courses. This thesis therefore aims to explore gendered issues associated with the complexities of the Football Association’s formal coach education process, and the issues associated with female football coaching practitioners’ attending coach education courses. The sports coaches who participated in this work were recruited via purposeful sampling procedures, and importantly demonstrated characteristics which resonated with the aims of this research study. The research study was separated into a four-phase, sequential, exploratory method design, which included a series of in-depth, one-to-one semi-structured interviews. Data were analysed utilising a thematic analysis approach, and aligned with a Bourdieun and feminist theoretical framework. The findings revealed a range of contexts and challenges for female coaches undertaking formal coach education. Specifically, high levels of gender discrimination, inappropriate cultural practices, and sexual impropriety were recorded. These insights are discussed in line with the Bourdieun notions of social acceptance, symbolic language and violence. In conclusion, it is argued that the attrition levels of the sports coaching practitioners’ have indeed been affected, and could well continue to be, unless change occurs. Hopefully, the recommendations provided could go a long way to enhancing the future provision of formal coach education.

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Limited research data is available outlining the resistance training characteristics of elite football players. The aim of the first study (Chapter 3) was to compare approaches to calculating resistance training volume during 4 weeks of pre-season training in 23 English Premier League footballers. Volume was calculated using four different methods of quantification; Repetition volume (RV), Set Volume (SV), Volume Load (VL) and Maximum Dynamic Strength Volume Load (MDSVL). Overall there was a significant difference between resistance training volumes calculated by the different methods used to monitor resistance training load (P < 0.001). More specifically, significant differences were observed between RV and SV methods (P < 0.001), RV and MDSVL (P = 0.001), SV and VL (P = 0.010), SV and MDSVL (P = 0.033) and VL and MDSVL (P = 0.002). Only RV and VL methods were similar in the information they provided on training load (P = 0.411). While the lack of a gold standard measure of volume makes it is unclear which, if any, method represents the most accurate measure of volume the discrepancies between methodological approaches highlight that these different approaches are not directly transferable as strategies to monitor resistance training. The understanding of the differences between each method may therefore enable appropriate, situation specific, approaches to be designed and implemented for both practical and research purposes. The aim of the second study (Chapter 4) was to analyse the resistance training loads completed by an elite professional football team across a competitive season. Resistance training data was collected from 31 elite football players competing in the English Premier League over a 46 week period in the 2012-2013 season. A total of 1685 individual training observations were collected during the pre-season and in-season competition phases, with a median of 42 training sessions per player (range = 9 – 124). Training load data was separated into 7 blocks of 6 weeks for analysis. These periods included pre-season (6 weeks duration) and in-season (40 weeks duration) phases. Set volume was selected as a measure of total volume. Data was analysed using 3 separate linear mixed modelling analysis using the statistical software package R (Version 3.0.1). Weekly resistance training frequency (mean±SD) ranged from 1±1 to 2±1 sessions per week during the pre and in season phases. Significant differences in session frequency were seen between weeks 1-6 and weeks 7-12 (pre-season) (P ˂ 0.05), weeks 7-12 and weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.05), and weeks 7-12 and weeks 37-42 (P ˂ 0.05). Mean weekly training volume ranged from 18±16 to 30±24 sets.wk-1. The total training volume demonstrates a clear minimum during weeks 7-12. Significant differences in total training volume were also observed between weeks 1-6 and weeks 7-12 (pre-season) (P ˂ 0.01), weeks 7-12 and weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.05), and weeks 7-12 and weeks 19-24 (P ˂ 0.05). There was no significant difference in training intensity between weeks 1-6 (pre-season) and weeks 7-12. Training intensity during weeks 1-6 however was significantly lower than during weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.05), 19-24 (P ˂ 0.01), 25-30 (P ˂ 0.01), 31-36 (P ˂ 0.05), and 37-42 (P ˂ 0.01). Training intensity during weeks 7-12 was also significantly lower than during weeks 13-18 (P ˂ 0.01), 19-24 (P ˂ 0.05), 25-30 (P ˂ 0.05), 31-36 (P ˂ 0.05), and 37-42 (P ˂ 0.001). The findings would suggest that resistance training loading is limited during different periods of the season. This is predominantly as a consequence of low training frequency, potentially due to a high prevalence of competitive fixtures. The aim of the third study (Chapter 5) was to attempt to quantify the impact of resistance training completed by players, through evaluating the change in the lower body power outputs of an elite professional football team across a competitive season. Resistance training data was collected from 22 elite football players competing in the English Premier League over a 38 week period. A total of 246 individual power output observations were collected during the in-season competition phase. Power output of the lower body was assessed using a pneumatic resistance leg press machine with software and digital display (Keiser Sports Health Equipment Inc., Fresno, Ca). Data was analysed by means of linear mixed modelling analysis using the statistical software package R (Version 3.0.1). Power outputs ranged from 2200W to 4078W with a mean value of 3022±374W. Linear mixed effects show a significant effect of week on power output across the season (coefficient= 7.76W, p=0.0132). Specifically, when accounting for within player effects, power output increased 7.76W per week during the season. Individual weekly power coefficients ranged from +39.9W to -18.13W per week, thus indicating that the trend for increased power output across the season is not uniform for all the players. These data may suggest that lower body power performance is maintained or minimally enhanced over the course of a full competitive season in elite football players. Combined with the training load data previously examined in this thesis it can be concluded that whilst one resistance training session per week may be sufficient to avoid in season de-training or minimally improve power performance in elite football players, a frequency of two sessions per week may be necessary to obtain significant performance enhancements. In our fourth study (Chapter 6) we provide two case studies that outline and evaluate a structured approach to increasing resistance training loading with the primary goal of developing strength and power during the competitive season in elite football players. The purpose of our initial case was to examine a resistance training programme to enhance strength and power performance, alongside body composition during a period of rehabilitation from injury. The study intervention commenced following two weeks of recovery following the “Laterjet” surgical procedure. Initial assessments were performed for body composition via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (QDR Series Discovery A, Hologic Inc., Bedford, MA) and lower body power output via using a pneumatic resistance leg press machine with software and digital display (Keiser Sports Health Equipment Inc., Fresno, Ca). Assessments were repeated 8 weeks post-surgery, i.e. following 6 weeks of resistance training. The six-week intervention consisted of three strength training sessions per week for the initial 3 weeks, followed by 2 sessions per week for the subsequent 3 weeks. Training volume (number of sets) equalled a total of 20 sets total per session. Total increase in body mass over the intervention period equated to 5.4kg, of which 4.2 kg increase in lean mass and a 1.3 kg increase in fat mass. Peak power output increased by 21%. Power to weight ratio also increased by 4.4 %. These data illustrate that it is possible to increase physical performance when rapid short-term increase in resistance training load is completed. The purpose of our second case was to examine a resistance training programme to enhance both strength and power performance parameters during a full competitive season. The player plays as a goalkeeper, regularly playing for his club 1st team. Prior to the onset of this case study this player did not present with any current injuries. This season long intervention consisted of two phases of training. Phase 1 was 16 weeks in duration and represented the beginning to the mid-point of the season. During this phase the goal was to gradually and safely increase resistance training loading. Phase 2 was 20 weeks in duration and represented the mid-point to the end of the season. This phase represented a period of consistent high loading following the initial systematic increase in these variables. / Assessment data was collected at the beginning, mid-point and end of the 2013-14 season. The player was first assessed for body composition via DXA (QDR Series Discovery A, Hologic Inc., Bedford, MA). Secondly, lower body power output was assessed using a pneumatic resistance leg press machine with software and digital display (Keiser Sports Health Equipment Inc., Fresno, Ca). Finally, the player’s upper body strength was assessed via 6 repetition maximum assessments of the dumbell bench press and prone row. The player completed a mean weekly volume of 41±24 sets per week and a mean frequency of 2±1 sessions per week for the initial phase of the study. The player completed a greater mean weekly volume in the later phase of the season compared to the initial training period (65±28 set per week vs. 41±24 sets per week in the initial phase of the season). A greater mean session frequency was also associated with the second training phase (3±1 vs. 2±1 session per week). There was a total decrease in body mass over the initial intervention period of 4kg, of which 2.7kg decrease in fat mass and a further 0.9 kg decrease in lean mass. Over the second phase of the intervention there was a total increase in body mass of 1.2kg, of which 2.4kg increase in lean mass and 1.2kg decrease in fat mass. During the initial phase of training peak power output increased by 25%, whilst power to weight ratio increased by 30%. During the later phase peak power output increased by a further 9% whilst the power to weight ratio increased by a further 10%. Upper body pressing (Dumbell Bench press) and upper body pulling (Dumbell Prone pull) strength was also increased by 14% and 21% respectively during the initial phase and a further 19% and 24% respectively during the later phase of the season.

The work undertaken from the studies in this thesis provides novel information in relation to the physical match demands of the European Super League (ESL) competition, focusing on a newly promoted ESL franchise. Specifically, this is the first work to examine the physical demands of competition for an entire squad of players across an entire competitive season in the ESL, the first to examine the physical demands of match-play over multiple longitudinal seasons, and the first to examine the effects of different between match recovery periods on the running demands for a large sample of ESL teams. Methodological work in this thesis has also highlighted the importance of quantifying and interpreting errors associated with GPS devices to quantify player movements and collisions. Chapter 4 examined the physical match demands for the newly promoted team over the entirety of a competitive season. Significant positional differences were evident, with Outside Backs (OB, 421 ± 89 m) and Pivots (PIV, 306 ± 108 m) performing more sprinting than Middle Unit Forwards (MUF, 185 ± 58 m) and Wide Running Forwards (296 ± 82 m). Conversely, MUF (35 ± 6) and WRF (36 ± 5) performed more collisions than PIV (23 ± 3) and OB (20 ± 3). Practitioners need to be aware of these differences when designing training and conditioning programmes for players. The high speed running (HSR) and number of collisions were greater for the newly promoted team than previously reported for higher ranked ESL teams, but are still lower than those experienced in the southern hemisphere National Rugby League (NRL). Chapter 5 examined the level of agreement between two different models of GPS device in measuring the total distance, and distance covered at high speed (> 5.0 m.s-1) in order that these could be examined in following chapters where two different models of device were used. The two devices showed acceptable levels of agreement in relation to specific analytical goals using positional data from Chapter 4 (total distance CV 0.8%, HSR CV 2.2%) and in relation to the differences between games won and lost at the elite level (mean bias [95% LoA] -0.29 m.min-1 [-1.6 m to 1.01 m.min-1] for total distance per minute, and 0.01 m.min-1 [-0.27 to 0.29 m.min-1] for HSR distance per minute)concluding the two devices could be used interchangeably to measure these parameters. Chapter 6 examined the physical demands of match-play for the newly promoted franchise over a three season period (2012-2014). There was an increase in the physical demands of competition in terms of the total distance coverer per minute (87.0 ± 2.4 m.min-1 – 96.6 ± 2.4 m.min-1), HSR distance covered per minute (6.3 ± 1.3 m.min-1 – 8.1 ± 0.5 m.min-1), and number of collisions per minute (0.43 ± 0.05 no.min-1 – 0.53 ± 0.04 m.min-1). These findings highlight that newly promoted teams need time to develop and adapt to the increasing demands of competition, which is a pertinent issue given the re-introduction of promotion and relegation from 2015. With the current structure, newly promoted teams will not have the chance to plan and develop over the long term, which could leads to teams spending over their means to attract the players required to keep them in the competition rather than focussing on long term player development. Chapter 7 examined the effectiveness of a wearable GPS device to automatically detect collision events during elite Rugby League match-play. The overall error of the device (19%) was associated with not correctly identifying a collision has occurred. Ball carries (97%) were more accurately detected than when compared to tackles (73%). First man tackles (83%) were more accurately detected than second man tackles (72%), and third man tackles (51%). This data suggests the microsensor device has the ability to automatically detect the majority of collision events in Rugby League match-play. However given the collision detection algorithm was originally developed for use in Rugby Union; this may need refinement for use in Rugby League, especially for detecting tackle events. Chapter 8 examined the effect of different between match recovery cycles (short, medium, and long) on the movement demands in subsequent matches on a larger sample of six elite ESL teams. Matches after a short turnaround were associated with greater HSR distance covered per minute of play (13.2 ± 6.9 m.min-1) than when compared to medium (11.6 ± 5.8 m.min-1) and long turnarounds (10.6 ± 5.6 m.min-1). Matches with long turnarounds were associated with increased low speed distance (< 3.8 m.s-1) covered per minute of play (84.8 ± 18.2 m.min-1) than both medium (79.3 ± 19.6 m.min-1) and short turnarounds (80.3 ± 17.7 m.min-1). The total distance covered per minute was only greater on a long turnaround (96.1 ± 16.9 m.min-1) when compared to a medium turnaround(72.9 ± 21.8 m.min-1). These data demonstrate that running performance is affected by the length of the between match recovery cycle, and coaches and conditioning staff working within the ESL should be mindful of these demands when developing recovery and training strategies for their players.

To gain a critical understanding of the lived challenges within the managerial cycle (recruitment, employment, termination) in professional league football, the research initially followed a qualitative approach in the form of semi-structured interviews. A total of 16 professional league managers completed a face-to-face interview using open ended questions, allowing them to share their true perspectives (Dale, 1996). The interview schedule concerned the managers' perceptions of challenges faced within the role, strategies to deal with the challenges, specific skills and qualities possessed, and future challenges within the role. Data were analysed via deductive and inductive content analysis (Biddle, Markland, Gilbourne, Chatzisarantis, & Sparkes, 2001; Côté, Samela, & Russel, 1995), and emerging themes were subjected to member checking (Sparkes, 1998). The range of experiences revealed a number of proposals for how to deal with cultural, organisational and personal related challenges. The managers’ ability to delegate responsibilities and to adapt effectively to changing environments seemed critical to avoid loops of accumulating problems. Unprofessional attitudes to recruitment and sackings seemed embedded in the culture. The eagerness for short-term results was perceived as a threat to sustainability in managerial work currently and in the future. The managerial cycle model was developed on the basis of Study One findings. Study Two aimed to examine the managerial cycle model by bringing in the internal (senior management and support staff) and external (Norwegian Football Association, League Managers’ Associations) key stakeholder views on the training, development and support of managers within the various phases of the managerial cycle (recruitment, employment and termination). A total of 21 internal (n=18) and external (n=3) key stakeholders completed a semi-structured interview, which was analysed via both deductive and inductive content analysis. The findings gave insight in senior management experiences regarding managerial recruitment and dismissals. Support staff members reported that both frequent changes of managers detracted the ability to work professionally and longitudinally. They also suggested that the managers’ receptivity to support was reduced in periods of high pressure. Further, managers were expected by their leaders to take care of their own development. These findings suggest that managers need to be skilled in self-directed learning to avoid superficiality in work. Preparing managers for the ability to adapt effectively to contextual changes appears to not be sufficiently integrated into the current formal training of managers. Study Three employed a case study approach to critically examine how the managerial lived experience might change over time. Three managers engaged in one Norwegian PL-club (full season) and one manager from an English League One club (four months) were regularly interviewed during various phases of the managerial cycle (recruitment, employment, termination). Ethnographic principles were employed in the study that aimed to better understand how the managerial experience might change across situations and conditions. The managerial experiences changed along with sporting results (ups and downs), and differed in levels of trust and communication internally. The findings argue that shared understanding and trust across organisational levels are needed to facilitate internal stability and long-term efficiency, meaning that the skills to establish these conditions are crucial for sustained sporting and organisational success. All the managers experienced challenges at cultural, organisational and personal levels related to the different phases of the managerial cycle and technical (understanding across professions), human, and conceptual skills were needed to deal with role related challenges. Given the complexity of the role, and the continuous and rapid changes that managers are exposed to, the current study suggests that contextual insights are needed to understand and ultimately advise or prepare managers sufficiently for their future role(s). Managers need consistency in their approach to gain trust from internal stakeholders, and sporting success seems to facilitate the support. To establish managerial consistency, the manager requires a clear philosophy based on cultural, organisational and personal understandings, combined with humbleness toward knowledge.

Player's performance in competitive matches is partly determined by the systematic training programmes that they complete. The differences in the organisation of training may result in differences in the physiological stress placed on players. This study aimed to investigate the influence of training organisation on the physiological, metabolic and molecular responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise in skeletal muscles. In Chapter 3, the physical demands of professional soccer training were examined by quantifying the physiological loads and work-rate profiles of elite players throughout the programmed pre-season and in-season training for a one week period. The physiological loads in pre-season were significantly higher than those in the in-season period (p < 0.05). Similar activity profiles were, however, observed during each training period irrespective of the time of the year. These findings demonstrate that pre- season training was more intensive than in-season training though these differences were not linked to changes in the activity patterns during sessions. Technical/tactical training seems to be an important component in increasing the physiological strain observed in pre-season training. This study also indicates that soccer training seems to elicit different demands to those associated with match-play. In Chapter 4, a laboratory-based soccer-specific training simulation (LSSTS) was devised on a motorized treadmill. Attempts were made to re-create both similar overall exercise intensities and patterns of discrete activity observed in training. The validity of this protocol was evaluated by comparing the physiological responses of professional players with those of healthy subjects who completed the LSSTS. Physiological measurements such as mean HR and % of HRmax associated with the simulation were similar to those obtained in the actual training session. These data suggest that the protocol is suitable in re-creating a soccer-specific training session in the laboratory. This protocol is, therefore, sufficient to use in investigations to study the physiological responses and the molecular adaptations of skeletal muscle to soccer-specific intermittent exercise. In Chapter 5, the effect of a single bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise on metabolic stress and acute molecular responses associated with mitochondrial biogenesis was investigated in human skeletal muscle. The LSSTS was utilised as the sports-specific exercise protocol. The levels of blood metabolites and muscle glycogen were significantly altered during and after exercise (p < 0.05). Simulated soccer-specific training also acutely activated the expression of PGG-1a mRNA in human skeletal muscle (p < 0.05). There was, however, no significant change in the phosphorylation of AMPK and p38MAPK. This would suggest that the global effect of soccer-specific intermittent exercise on aerobic performance may be partly mediated by adaptations associated with mitochondrial biogenesis in skeletal muscle. ' In Chapter 6, the effect of prior soccer-specific training on the physiological, metabolic and molecular responses to a subsequent bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise was evaluated. Two experimental trials (BETWEEN DA Y trial, one bout of soccer-specific intermittent exercise in a day Vs WITHIN DA Y trial, two consecutive bouts of soccer-specific intermittent exercise performed in a day) were completed on two separate occasions. There were significant increases in physiological responses during the second bout of exercise in the WITHIN DAY trial, compared to those obtained in the, BETWEEN DAY trial (p < 0.05). A more pronounced increase in NEFA and glycerol was observed in the WITHIN DAY trial compared with the BETWEEN DAY trial post-exercise following the second bout of exercise (p < 0.05). The expression of PGC-1a mRNA significantly increased following exercise compared to pre- and post-exercise values. There was, however, no difference in phosphorylation of AMPK and p38MAPK and the expression of PGC-1a mRNA between either trial. Based on these findings, it would seem that different approaches to training organisation may be more important for the acute physiotoqlca: responses to soccer-specific intermittent exercise than the molecular changes underpinning chronic adaptations.

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