Ph.D. afhandling, Roskilde universitetscenter 2000. Thesis submitted for Ph.D. degree, 2000.

The mammalian immune defense consists of two systems, which are interconnected and co-operate to provide host defense. The innate immune system is always active and detects and responds to non-self without delay. The adaptive immune system has a lag phase, but is more specific and has got a memory. The innate immune system relies on pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) to detect molecular patterns signaling microbial presence. This thesis focuses on a centrally placed family of PRRs, namely the Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and on mannan-binding lectin (MBL), a PRR which initiates the lectin activation pathway of complement. TLRs are expressed on the cell surface and in intracellular compartments, while MBL is a soluble protein present in most body fluids. Polymorphism – literally ’many forms’ – refers to variation between individuals, at DNA level as well as in traits. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) implicates that alternative nucleotides are present at a particular position in the genome. Mutations, together with phenomena like gene duplication and whole genome duplication, are the ultimate source of variation in nature and the fuel for evolution. Through natural selection and breeding, i.e. artificial selection, species are shaped and change over time. Domestic animals are well suited for genetic studies, since they enable comparisons of populations exposed to different selection criteria and environmental challenges. Also, in the case of pigs, comparisons to the wild ancestor – i.e. the wild boar – can shed light on the evolutionary process. Moreover, pigs are large animal models for humans. Paper I reports the refinement of previously identified quantitative trait loci for immune-related traits on pig chromosome 8. Papers II and III report differences in polymorphic patterns between wild boars and domestic pigs in the TLR1, TLR2, TLR6, and TLR10 genes. In TLR1 and TLR2, more SNPs were present in the domestic pigs than in the wild boars. In TLR6, SNP numbers were similar in both animal groups, but the level of heterozygosity was higher in the domestic pigs than in the wild boars. In TLR10, again, more SNPs were present in the domestic pigs, and a higher number of non-synonymous SNPs was detected in TLR10 compared to the other genes. This might suggest redundancy for TLR10 in pigs. Paper IV reports the presence of an SNP, previously detected in domestic pigs and assumed to affect MBL concentrations in serum, in European wild boars. Also, the connection between the presumed low-producing allele and low MBL concentration in serum was confirmed. Moreover, a novel SNP, with potential to be functionally important, was detected. Owing to the domestication process and differences in selection pressure, differences in polymorphic patterns between wild boars and domestic pigs are not surprising. However, since breeding means choosing among genotypes, the opposite pattern – more SNPs in wild boars than in domestic pigs – would have been expected. However, the result confirms other studies, which have shown that European wild boars went through a bottle neck before domestication started. The higher number of SNPs in domestic pigs may be due to relaxed purifying selection during the domestication process.

<p>Insects are useful models for the study of innate immune reactions and development. The distinction between recognition mechanisms preceding the breakdown of apoptotic cells during metamorphosis, and the breakdown of cells in response to infections, is unclear. Hemolin, a <i>Lepidopteran</i> member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is a candidate molecule in self/nonself recognition. This thesis investigates hemolin function and <i>hemolin </i>gene regulation at a molecular level.</p><p>We investigated the binding and cell adhesion properties of hemolin from <i>H. cecropia </i>and demonstrated that the proteins could homodimerize in presence of calcium. Moreover, a higher molecular weight membrane form of hemolin was present on hemocytes. These results, taken together with an earlier finding that soluble hemolin inhibits hemocyte adhesion, indicated that the secreted hemolin could modulate hemocyte aggregation in a competitive manner in the blood. In addition, hemolin was expressed in different tissues and at different developmental stages.</p><p>Since <i>hemolin</i> is expressed both during development and during the immune response, its different regulatory factors must act in concert. We found that the third intron contains an enhancer, through which Dif, C/EBP and HMGI synergistically activate a reporter construct <i>in vitro</i>. We concluded that the enhancer is used during infection, since the κB-site is crucial for an immune response. Interestingly, we also found that the active form of the steroid hormone, ecdysone, induces the <i>hemolin</i> gene transcription <i>in vivo</i>, and in addition, acts synergistically during bacterial infection. Preliminary <i>in vivo</i> results indicate a secondary effect of ecdysone and the importance of hormone receptor elements in the upstream promoter region of <i>hemolin</i>.</p><p>To explore the use of <i>Drosophila</i> as a genetic tool for understanding hemolin function and regulation, we sought to isolate the functional homologue in this species. A fly cDNA library in yeast was screened using <i>H. cecropia</i> hemolin as bait. The screen was not successful. However, it did lead to the discovery of a <i>Drosophila</i> protein with true binding specificity for hemolin. Subsequent characterization revealed a new, highly conserved gene, which we named <i>yippee</i>. Yippee is distantly related to zinc finger proteins and represents a novel family of proteins present in numerous eukaryotes, including fungi, plants and humans. Notably, when the <i>Drosophila</i> genome sequence was revealed, no hemolin orthologue could be detected.</p><p>Finally, an extensive <i>Drosophila</i> genome chip analysis was initiated. The goal was to investigate the<i> Drosophila</i> immune response, and, in contrast to earlier studies of artificially injected flies, to examine a set of natural microbes, orally and externally applied. In parallel experiments viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites were compared to unchallenged controls. We obtained a unique set of genes that were up-regulated in the response to the parasite <i>Octosporea muscadomesticae</i> and to the fungus <i>Beauveria bassiana</i>. We expect both down-regulated and up-regulated genes to serve as a source for the discovery of new effector molecules, in particular those that are active against parasites and fungi.</p>

<p>Hemolin is a lepidopteran member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, initially isolated from the giant silkmoth <i>Hyalophora cecropia</i>. <i>Hemolin</i> is also induced by stimulation with microbial cell wall components and was recently shown to be strongly upregulated by baculovirus and double stranded RNA. An interesting characteristic of the protein is that it is not only highly expressed during infection but also during development.</p><p>The work presented in this thesis investigated the expression of hemolin during oogenesis and embryogenesis in <i>H. cecropia</i>. Vitellogenic follicles from ovaries were analysed for the presence of the protein by immunohistochemistry in whole-mount preparations and in cryosections. PCR was used to show the presence of Hemolin transcripts throughout vitellogenesis and choriogenesis and in fertilized and unfertilized mature eggs and Western blots showed the protein in unfertilized eggs, yolk cells and embryo.</p><p>Injection of the moulting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) into hibernating diapausing pupae (low metabolic state), upregulates <i>Hemolin</i>. When diapausing pupae were treated with 20E and the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide, its expression stayed low. This shows that the hormone indirectly regulates <i>Hemolin</i> by some factor(s) induced by 20E. When both bacteria and 20E were injected into diapausing pupae, an enhanced induction of hemolin gene expression occurred. Despite the seemingly indirect 20E regulation, several putative hormone responsive elements were found in the upstream region of the <i>Hemolin</i> (HRE-IR, HRE-M and MRE). When these elements were analysed by gel electrophoresis mobility shift assays (EMSA) to investigate their binding to nuclear factors, all the sites resulted in specific retarded bands. The HRE-IR binding factor was clearly increased by ecdysone. Last but not least we have investigated the effect of Hemolin on development of the malaria parasite<i> Plasmodium falciparum</i> in the midgut of the <i>Anopheles</i> mosquitoes. Hemolin completely inhibits the development of the parasite into its final transmission stage, the sporozoite. A future goal is to generate para-transgenic mosquitoes, enforced by hemolin, to stop malaria transmission. Importantly, hemolin did not affect the mosquito fecundity when fed to the mosquito. We are currently constructing truncated forms of hemolin to gain insight into which parts are important for its effect on the parasite.</p>

Hemolin is a lepidopteran member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, initially isolated from the giant silkmoth Hyalophora cecropia. Hemolin is also induced by stimulation with microbial cell wall components and was recently shown to be strongly upregulated by baculovirus and double stranded RNA. An interesting characteristic of the protein is that it is not only highly expressed during infection but also during development. The work presented in this thesis investigated the expression of hemolin during oogenesis and embryogenesis in H. cecropia. Vitellogenic follicles from ovaries were analysed for the presence of the protein by immunohistochemistry in whole-mount preparations and in cryosections. PCR was used to show the presence of Hemolin transcripts throughout vitellogenesis and choriogenesis and in fertilized and unfertilized mature eggs and Western blots showed the protein in unfertilized eggs, yolk cells and embryo. Injection of the moulting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) into hibernating diapausing pupae (low metabolic state), upregulates Hemolin. When diapausing pupae were treated with 20E and the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide, its expression stayed low. This shows that the hormone indirectly regulates Hemolin by some factor(s) induced by 20E. When both bacteria and 20E were injected into diapausing pupae, an enhanced induction of hemolin gene expression occurred. Despite the seemingly indirect 20E regulation, several putative hormone responsive elements were found in the upstream region of the Hemolin (HRE-IR, HRE-M and MRE). When these elements were analysed by gel electrophoresis mobility shift assays (EMSA) to investigate their binding to nuclear factors, all the sites resulted in specific retarded bands. The HRE-IR binding factor was clearly increased by ecdysone. Last but not least we have investigated the effect of Hemolin on development of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in the midgut of the Anopheles mosquitoes. Hemolin completely inhibits the development of the parasite into its final transmission stage, the sporozoite. A future goal is to generate para-transgenic mosquitoes, enforced by hemolin, to stop malaria transmission. Importantly, hemolin did not affect the mosquito fecundity when fed to the mosquito. We are currently constructing truncated forms of hemolin to gain insight into which parts are important for its effect on the parasite.

P2 is the prototype phage of the non-lambdoid P2 family of temperate phages. A developmental switch determines whether a temperate phage will grow lytically or form lysogeny after infection. P2 related phages have two face-to-face located promoters controlling the lysogenic and the lytic operon respectively, and two repressors. The immunity C repressor of P2 is the first gene of the lysogenic operon and it represses the lytic promoter. The Cox protein, the first gene of the lytic operon, is multifunctional. It represses the lysogenic promoter, acts as a directionality factor in site-specific recombination and activates the PLL promoter of satellite phage P4. This thesis focuses on comparisons between the developmental switches of P2 and the two heteroimmune family members, P2 Hy dis and WΦ. A characterization of the developmental switch region of P2 Hy dis identifies a directly repeated sequence which is important for C repression. P2 Hy dis Cox can substitute for P2 Cox in repression of the P2 lysogenic promoter, excision of a P2 prophage and activation of P4 PLL. The P4 ε protein can derepress the developmental switch of P2 Hy dis. Functional characterizations of the C repressors and Cox proteins of P2 and WΦ show that both C repressors induce bending of their respective DNA targets. WΦ C, like P2 C, has a strong dimerization activity in vivo, but there are no indications of higher oligomeric forms. Despite the high degree of identity in the C-terminus, required for dimerization in P2 C, they seem to be unable to form heterodimers. The two Cox proteins are predicted to have identical secondary structures containing a helix-turn-helix motif believed to be involved in DNA binding. It is, however, not possible to change the DNA specificity of P2 Cox to that of WΦ Cox by swapping the presumed recognition helix. P2 Cox recognizes a sequence repeated at least six times in the different targets, while WΦ Cox seems to recognize a single direct repeat. In contrast to P2 Cox, WΦ Cox binds with a stronger affinity to the switch region than to the attachment site (attP). The Cox proteins induce a strong bend in their DNA targets, strengthening the hypothesis that they have a structural role at site-specific recombination. Both proteins show a capacity to oligomerize, but P2 Cox has a higher tendency to form oligomers than WΦ Cox. The P2 integrase mediates site-specific recombination leading to integration or excision of the P2 genome in or out of the host chromosome. P2 Cox controls the direction by inhibiting integration and promoting excision. In this work it is shown that Cox and Int bind cooperatively to attP.

Ph.D. afhandling, Roskilde universitetscenter 2002.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Stockholms universitet, 2008. / Härtill 6 uppsatser.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Uppsala universitet, 2006. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Uppsala universitet, 2006. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.