<p>Two longstanding goals in subsurface science are to induce fractures with a desired geometry to adaptively control the interstitial geometry of existing fractures in response to changing subsurface conditions. Many energy and water-related engineering applications that use induced fractures to withdraw and inject fluids from subsurface reservoirs occur in some sedimentary rock.  Sedimentary rock such as shales often exhibit anisotropic mechanical properties because of bedding, layering and mineral texture.  These structural and textural features also affect fracture formation and in turn the resulting fracture geometry. Understanding the interplay between the microscopic mineral fabric and structure and how it effects fracture geometry is important for the prediction of the geometry of induced fractures and to the determination of the most ideal conditions for maximizing energy production and minimizing leaks from sequestration sites in the subsurface. </p> <p><br></p> <p>This Ph.D. thesis research focuses on the formation and geometry of fractures in anisotropic rock and the identification of geophysical signatures of fracture formation using additively manufactured gypsum rock analogs. Specifically, the work is grouped into three topics: (1) material controls on fracture geometry, toughness and roughness in additively manufactured rocks; (2) acoustic emissions (AE) during fracture formation in anisotropic additively manufactured rocks; and (3) determination of the effect of fluid-filled oriented voids in fractures on compressional to shear wave conversions. </p> <p><br></p> <p>For topic (1), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), Brazilian and 3-point bending (3PB) tests under pure and mixed mode mechanical tests were performed on cast and 3D printed gypsum samples that were characterized using 3D Xray microscopy, Xray Diffraction and SEM to examine the micro-structure of the samples. Research on topic 1 discovered microstructural controls on fracture surface roughness and the failure behavior of anisotropic rock and that the failure mode (tensile, mixed mode I and II, mixed mode I and III) affects the fracture propagation path and the surface roughness which is controls to the flow paths through a fracture. The results suggest that detailed mineralogical studies of mineral texture/fabric in laboratory or core samples is important to unravel failure strength, surface roughness, and how fractures propagate in layered geological media. </p> <p><br></p> <p>For topic (2), UCS tests were performed with concurrent measurements of acoustic emissions (AE) on cylindrical specimens: cast gypsum (CG) samples, and 3D printed (3DP) samples with five different orientations of bassanite layer and gypsum texture relative to the loading direction. Mechanical properties and induced fracture surface information were compared with the collected the AE signals to study if there is a way to tell the differences between the induced fracture surfaces with the AE signals patterns together with loading data. Examination of the AE signal amplitude from post-peak loading revealed that more ductile behavior was associated with more AE events that occurred over a longer period of time, and the resultant fracture surfaces were rougher than for narrow time distributions of events. </p> <p><br></p> <p>For topic (3), a detail study of fracture void orientation was performed using ultrasonic compressional, P, and shear, S, waves to determine how energy is partitioned when P-to-S or S-to-P conversions occur for waves normally incident on an air-filled or fluid-filled fracture. In this study, experiments and computer simulations were performed to demonstrate the link among cross-coupling stiffness, micro-crack orientation and energy partitioning into P, S, and P-S/S-P wave. The cross-coupling stiffness was created by 3D printing samples with linear arrays of micro-cracks oriented at  $0^o$, $\pm15^o$, $\pm30^o$, $\pm45^o$, $\pm60^o$, $\pm75^o$, and $90^o$. For $45^o$ orientation, measurements were made on air-filled and fluid-filled (silicon oil). For the air-filled fractures, the observed energy partitioning matched the simulated behavior obtained from discontinuous Galerkin simulations. Information on local fracture geometry is contained in the far-field waves. When filled with a viscous fluid, the P- and S- waves amplitude exhibited slight increases and decreases, respectively. The P-to-S converted mode amplitude decreased 30\% with an increase in fluid viscosity from 1–300kcSt. This suggests that P-S converted mode provides a potential method to remotely probe changes in fluid viscosity in fractures. </p> <p><br></p> <p>The work from the 3 research topics demonstrated that micro-scale structure impacts macroscale behavior and signals used for monitoring the condition of a rock. Additively manufactured samples enabled the exploration and determination of (1) the impact of mineral fabric orientation in layered media on failure load, fracture propagation path, and fracture surface roughness, (2) the sensitivity of P-to-S conversions to fluid viscosity, and (3) how oriented voids within a fracture effect energy partitioning. These research findings advances our current understanding of role microscopic properties and structure on the generation, propagation and geometry of induced fractures in anisotropic rock, and help to identify the best imaging modalities to use to identify the seismic signatures of the viscosity of fluids in fractures with oriented voids. These contributions will help unravel the complex behavior often observed in natural rock that is structurally and compositionally complex with features and heterogeneity.  </p> <p><br></p>

<p dir="ltr">This research aims to examine the effect that mantle tractions have on surface deformation throughout the Pacific-North America plate boundary zone in Alaska, western Canada, and the Bering Sea region. We use 3-D geodynamic models to simulate the crust and upper mantle in order to investigate the tectonic force balance between plate boundary interactions, gravitational collapse, and basal tractions. We determine that mantle tractions with a magnitude of ~2.5-3.8 MPa, directed to the southeast, in conjunction with forces from the Yakutat flat slab, best fit the steady-state plate motion estimates in Alaska. We also show how these mantle tractions have likely aided in concentrating deformation to the northwest of incoming Yakutat oceanic plateau throughout the ~50 Ma evolution of flat slab subduction in this region. Finally, we conclude that mantle tractions also impact the broad zone of distributed deformation surrounding the Bering Sea. The confluence of basal forces and tectonic extrusion, due to the Yakutat flat slab, may lead to the evolution of a new plate boundary extending from northwest Alaska to the Kuril-Kamchatka subduction zone.</p>

The Malawi (Nyasa) Rift is a prominent example of immature rifting located along the southern East African Rift System. The SEGMeNT (Study of Extension and maGmatism in Malawi aNd Tanzania) project installed a new network of 12 continuous GPS sites in Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia. Using this new data along with data from other existing sites in the region, I examine the present-day deformation along the Malawi Rift and surrounding areas. The GPS data is used to constrain a tectonic block model of the Malawi Rift in order to produce estimates of angular velocities of the blocks, which are then used to derive fault slip rates and linear block velocities. The new data around the Malawi Rift suggests an additional block may be required to explain the observed deformation. My preferred model predicts that extension rates in the area are slower than previous studies suggested (3.8 ± 0.7 mm/yr; Stamps et al., 2008) with a cumulative rate 2.35 ± 0.65 mm/yr in the northern Malawi Rift and 1.26 ± 0.85 mm/yr along the southern Malawi Rift.

<p>Probing the subsurface for evidence related to the degradation of porous mediums and the evolution of damage mechanisms has been a long-standing challenge in geophysics. As such imaging and predicting fracture network development has remained a difficult area for subsurface science for decades despite the seminal and significant works put forward by many researchers. While this has provide great understanding about the behaviours and properties of natural porous media, there is still much that needs to be explored particularly in regard to the mineralogical composition and chemistry of clay-rich rocks. Despite the fact that argillaceous rocks which consist of different types of clays and varied mineral composition are ubiquitous in nature and are often the target of several technologies (e.g. geotechnical engineering, nuclear waste storage and disposal,hydrocarbon exploration and extraction, carbon capture and sequestration, etc.), many studies focus primarily on the bulk properties or the percentage of components in the matrix. For these reason and due to the problems that can be encountered with natural rocks that contain a swelling clay component whether randomly distirbuted or localized in consolidated globs in zones of the matrix, the influence of clay chemistry in relation to fracture development which is not well characterized, especially during desaturation is investigated with analogue rock samples which were systematically fabricated for this purpose.</p> <p><br></p> <p>The research performed in this dissertation investigated, the applicability of  the fabrication protocol for developing synthetic rocks with desirable rock like features and behavior, the impact and relationship between the rock properties, the microstructural composition, water loss, and the macroscopic behavior of the analogue rocks, focusing on the structure and chemistry of the constituent clay materials. Synthetic rocks were fashioned with the necessary geometries, properties, and material compositions. On the macroscopic scale the fracture and drying behavior of the synthetic rocks were examined with 3D X-ray microscopy and further evaluated through the utility of acoustic emission monitoring, water loss monitoring, and unconfined compressive testing. On the finer scale (nano-microscale), the chemical and mechanical properties, and behavior of select clays was explored by exploiting several methods of material characterization which also included cation exchange experiments coupled with inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). </p> <p><br></p> <p>For the finer scale, experiments verified that calcined kaolinite clay had a different mineral structure and negligible to non-existence shrinkage abilities. In contrast, the montmorillonite clays possessed higher and similar moisture contents but, owing to the different principal cations these clays interacted a bit differently in the highly akaline environment, experienced varying degrees of shrinkage, and had observedly minor structural dissimilarities. For the relatively larger scale, the emergence of damage, extent of the damage network, and the patterns of the crack network mainly depended on the microstructural composition of the analogue rocks, particularly it's clay chemistry and/ or distribution. The location of damage depended on the emplacement and percentage of swelling clay in the matrix, and numerical investigations with peridynamics revealed that the observed damage was a consequence of the action of the swelling and non-swelling components of the matrix. Furthermore, if the microstructure consisted of no clay or calcined kaolinite the AE activity was solely attributed to interfacial processes that occurred during fluid front movement. If the microstructure consisted of a particular montmorillonite, the cracks propagated in the direction of the drying front. Conversely, for montmorillonite clay predominated by a different principal cation, the crack network developed and propagated differently during water loss. Additionally, on the laboratory core scale, properties and behavior similar to natural rocks were confirmed and the rock strength, porosity, AE activity, and velocities were primarily affected by the microstructural composition of the analogue rocks. </p> <p><br></p> <p>An added challenge for investigating and monitoring evolving systems and processes, whether on the laboratory or field scale, is the problem of extracting useful information from the physical data that can be used to identify signatures of developing processes, and changes in the properties or the behavior of a system. Here, data driven machine learning modeling and clustering techniques were undertaken to build a mechanistic understanding of the AE activity generated during drying. The intent is for this work to add to the fundamental research aimed at developing methods that will robustly detect and extract signatures related to evolutionary processes or features in the AE signals, and group them according to some degree of similarity. Such research will support reliable interpretations of the physical data for predictions of the behavior of systems, development of engineering controls, and improvement of the understanding of intrinsic dynamics related to complex processes particularly those that occur in clay-rich systems.</p> <p><br></p> <p>Combined chemical and mechanical investigations have great potential for unraveling practical challenges in subsurface science, especially regarding damage processes in clay-rich rock systems, and identifying and interpreting the presence of discontinuities from geophysical data. The present findings are useful for establishing a link between the constituent clay and observed damage, and improving our understanding of the development of damage in clay-bearing systems. These results provide insight on the influence of swelling clay and the chemistry of such clays on the generation of cracks and crack networks in rock like materials which can be useful for the characterization of damage in both laboratory and the field. The work presented here can also be a basis for further experiments that aim to uncover methods and protocols that will help with the indirect characterization of evolutionary processes, damage mechanisms, and damage in clay rich porous media. Additionally support for the use of analogue rocks in experimental rock physics, architected with specific material compositions, pore structures, crack systems, or clay fractions, is provided here. </p>