Spectral characteristics of sub-surface current and temperature records spanning 310-533 days from me Strait of Georgia near Sturgeon Bank are examined. Of particular interest are low-frequency fluctuations having, a characteristic period of 30 days. Typically, the energy of the low-frequency and tidal currents are equal at 50m (each about 40% of the total), and 10% and 10%, respectively, at 200m. Low-frequency currents are observed to be baroclinic and posses a lateral length scale less than 10km. Their generation mechanisms are not identified. The low-frequency fluctuations in sea-level and current have poor-to-fair coherence, while those in air-pressure and current have poor coherence. Low-frequency fluctuations in wind and current have fair coherence at the eastern mooring, and poor coherence at the remaining two moorings. Fluctuations in water temperature have a characteristic period of 300 days. Water temperatures at different locations generally have poor coherence except at the lowest frequencies where they are fair-to-good. Water temperature and current at the same location have poor coherence. Tidal currents are found to be ellipses, with the largest constituents being M² and K¹. The magnitude, shape .and orientation of the tidal current ellipses are time-dependent. Internal tides are suggested as an explanation. / Science, Faculty of / Physics and Astronomy, Department of / Graduate

In 1971, changes were observed in the overwintering population sizes of Calanus plumchrus Marukawa, Galanus marshallae Frost and Calanus pacificus californicus Brodsky in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia. Calanus plumchrus and C. pacificus were less common than in previous years, while C. marshallae was more common. Based on scattered data taken since the turn of the century, these changes appeared to be abnormal. Because Calanus plumchrus constituted a significant proportion of the biomass of the zooplankton community, it was possible that the observed fluctuations were indicative of changes in the structure of the zooplankton community within the Strait. Thus a unique opportunity was presented to study a zooplankton community and Its relationship to environmental parameters. Multiple correlation analysis, cluster analysis, multiple regression analysis, factor analysis and principal components analysis were used to analyse zooplankton concentrations and hydrographic data taken in overwintering periods from I969 to 1974. Additional hydrographic data were used to examine relationships between physical and biological data three and six months out of phase. The multivariate techniques allowed an efficient analysis of the relationships within and between the biological and physical data banks. More than one multivariate method was used as each method gives a slightly different viewpoint on the data. A combination of methods thus produces a more complete picture of the system being analysed, while points of overlap between the techniques act as internal checks on the consistency of the analysis. The analysis indicates a recent shift in the hydrographic regime of the Strait of Georgia. The shift is most obvious in the salinity, but can also be seen in the temperature, and in both cases is strongest in Strait of Georgia deep water. It involves subtle changes in salinity and temperature structure. These changes axe of uncertain biological significance but indicate fluctuations in the process of deep water formation. Deep water is formed in the Southern Passages by the mixing of incoming Strait of Juan de Fuca intermediate and deep water with outflowing near surface fresher water. Changes in either of these components, or in the degree of mixing, may produce some changes in the quality of the deep water, which intrudes into the Strait of Georgia in late summer. These changes in quality appear to affect the zooplankton community. Individual zooplankton species are strongly influenced by temperature and stability characteristics or related factors. Temperature and stability during the fall intrusion are particularly important to the overwintering zooplankton community three months later. The same two factors in spring also affect zooplankton in the following winter. The concentrations of Calanus plumchrus and C. marshallae have significant (p<O.05) linear regressions with concurrent temperature at 350 m. The regression lines have opposite slopes and intersect in the region of normal ambient temperature at 350 m. This result suggests that deep water temperature, or a temperature associated, factor, strongly affects the relative fluctuations in the numbers of both species. Principal components and factor analysis of the hydrographic data both suggest that the most important factor in the structure of the water column is its subdivision into near surface, intermediate and deep water. However, in both temperature and salinity components a portion of the variance is associated with a temporal trend within the deep water. Principal components of the zooplankton similarly associate 15% of the zooplankton variance with a temporal trend. No species is strongly weighted on these components, and the association appears to be a function of the whole community, rather than of individual species. As an adjunct to this investigation, ecological separation between Calanus plumchrus and C. marshallae was investigated. Both species have similar distributions and life histories. Feeding competition between them is minimized by a separation in their ability to filter small particles from the water. Calanus plumchrus can feed readily on particles above 3>5 ym in diameter, while C. marshallae can not efficiently filter particles below about 10.5 ym in diameter. Thus, Calanus plumchrus can exploit a potentially rich food source with no competition from Calanus marshallae. This advantage may maintain Calanus plumchrus within the Strait of Georgia despite the detrimental effect of a shift in deep water temperature or related factors. It also suggests that, given a more "normal" physical climate, Calanus plumchrus could revert to its traditional dominance. If Calanus plumchrus continues to drop, or remains at suppressed levels, the economically important fish species that utilize it as food will have to shift prey species, probably to Calanus marshallae. Feeding on C. marshallae will involve a greater energy expenditure to obtain the same ration, and may be detrimental to some predators. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

A subtidal site at Saturnina Island was sampled quantitatively to determine the seasonal and depth related trends of gastropod populations. The resulting density estimates were used to characterize the assemblage using diversity, niche-breadth, and cluster analyses. The relationship between gastropod abundance and diatom density, as estimated from colonization of glass microscope slides, was investigated One experiment, which was conducted at the site, was designed to determine whether the macrophytic algae still attracted the numerically dominant snail after the algae had been either cleaned with hydrogen peroxide, or killed by immersion in 50° C. seawater. Most species attained their maximum development after recruitment in spring or early summer. The greatest number of species was found at the shallowest station that was sampled, and abundances tended to decrease with depth with most species. Most of the snails had dispersion patterns that were similar to those of the two dominant species Marqarites costalis and Lacuna marmorata. Ninety-five percent of all the individuals collected were found to belong to five species. This high degree of numerical dominance severely affected the results of the diversity and the cluster analyses. Analyses of frequency vs. mean abundance, and niche-breadths revealed detailed information concerning the distributions of the gastropods that was not readily obtainable from graphs of mean density per quadrat. Diversity, species richness, the total abundance of gastropods, and the densities of several species were correlated to the abundance of diatoms. Several species were also found to contain diatoms among their gut contents. Several other factors, including parasitism, predation, low salinity-high temperature water, and competition are discussed as factors, which, in addition to diatom abundance, may have affected the gastropod dispersion patterns. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Unknown

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 1955. / Vita. Bibliography: leaves 223-230.

The seasonal and interannual variation of the water properties and deep water renewal in the Strait of Georgia are examined. Temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen data acquired over an intensively sampled one year period are presented to show the timing of renewal periods and the variation in properties across the Strait and with depth. The northward propagation of the renewal signal and of its variation across the Strait of Georgia are discussed. A volumetric analysis provides temperature and salinity averages of the Strait of Georgia waters and of renewal water during several stages of each renewal period. Estimates of the renewal volume are calculated using a heat and salt budget method. Data collected in the central part of the Strait over several decades are presented to show the interannual variation in water properties. Correlation coefficients relating the wintertime air temperatures to the deep water properties some time later in the Strait are given. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

The northern Strait of Georgia (NSG) and adjacent Malaspina Complex of inlets (MC) were studied to determine the effect of stratification on microplankton communities. The NSG was dominated by nanoflagellates in spring. There was no evidence of a vernal diatom bloom in the Strait, perhaps due to wind turbulence or microzooplankton grazing. In early summer regimes were conducive to diatom growth but the northern Strait was experiencing a "mild" red tide. By late summer, diatoms bloomed and prevailed, presumably, till the fall decline. Stratification was greatest in late summer, due chiefly to temperature, with reduced surface salinities on the east side from Fraser River runoff. At this time biological partitioning was pronounced, resulting in a mosaic of organismal groups. Although stratification had declined by early autumn, the mosaicism was maintained and strengthened. Diatoms were most abundant in the north and on the west side where stratification was least, in areas of tidal turbulence. Photosynthetic nanoflagellates and photosynthetic dinoflagellates favoured the more stratified east side. Ciliate distributions mirrored those of the nanoflagellates. The MC was thought to be a more stratified version of the NSG but it was found to be a fairly mixed water body due to tidal action. It was sheltered from winds which allowed the early blooming of diatoms. These were maintained for several months by a tidal jet through Malaspina Inlet that probably injected nutrients into the junction of Malaspina, Okeover, and Lancelot Inlets. Principal components analysis was used to reduce the dimensionality of the biological dataset, and canonical correlation analysis allowed the coupling of environmental data to the biological principal components. It was found that PCI reflected general biomass while PC's II and III were most often related to depth and location. These latter two were utilised to resolve the species information in three-dimensions. In general, nanoflagellates populated surface waters whereas diatoms tended to occupy deeper depths. Multiple regression analysis was performed on organismal groups to explore how biomass was affected by stratification, pycnocline depth, surface temperature (seasonality), nitrate, and grazing. / Science, Faculty of / Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Department of / Graduate

Appropriate sampling and experimental programs resulted in a qualitative and quantitative assessment of seaweed litter biomasses, decomposition rates and concomitant changes in nitrogen content; detritus biomass and decomposition rates; and faunal distribution patterns for the significant species within a successional seaweed community in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia, Canada. A simulation model incorporating suitable data obtained from these sampling and experimental programs facilitated prediction of detritus formation rates, biomass, nitrogen content and the seasonal availability of detritus as a food resource for fauna. Soluble matter release rates from decomposing seaweed litter and its nitrogen content were also determined. Of the ca 43 taxa identified within the seaweed litter collections, Fucus distichvs L. (41%), Irldaea cordata (Turner) Bory (26%), Nereocystis 1uetkeana (Mertens) Postels and Ruprecht (27%), and Laminaria (4%) (L. saccharina (L.) Lamouroux and L. groenlandica Rosenvinge) accounted for more than 97% of total litter deposition. The mean peak summer biomass of all litter was ca 5 g ash-free dry weight (AFDW)/m² with this figure approaching zero during January and February. Litter distribution was patchy and there was sufficient evidence to conclude that most litter was retained, and underwent decomposition, in the immediate vicinity of its place of deposition. Litter decomposition experiments performed on the 10 most significant contributors to seaweed community structure indicated that decomposition of seaweed litter occurs rapidly compared to vascular plant litter. The time required for seaweed litter to disappear from 2 mm mesh litter bags ranged from six days, for the lamina of Nereocystis luetkeana, to ca 70 days, for Fucus distichus. Some similarity in decomposition rates was observed amongst species displaying taxonomic and/or morphologic affinities. Assessment of nitrogen content of decomposing seaweed litter revealed that nine of the 10 species assayed lost nitrogen less rapidly than total litter biomass. As determined by assaying microbial consumption of particulate material, the time required for detritus (particle size < 1 mm, dry) to fully decompose was short. Of the 10 species tested, Iridaea cordata detritus decomposed most rapidly at a rate of 5.7% per day while rates for Gigartina papillata (C. Agardh) J. Agardh, Laminaria groenlandica, Laminaria saccharina and Nereocystis luetkeana ranged from 2-4% per day. Data for the remaining species were less conclusive although all decomposed at rates less than one percent per day. Variation in specific decomposition rates was shown to be correlated with the structural composition of the detritus. Those species with a relatively small percentage of crude fibre as a component of their particulate fraction decomposed more rapidly than those species with a higher percentage of crude fibre. For the two most rapidly decomposing species, Iridaea cordata and Nereocystis luetkeana, a trend toward a more rapid decomposition rate as mean particle size decreased was evident. Natural detritus (particle size < 2 mm, wet) biomass accumulation within the study site peaked at ca 1.4 g AFDW/m² during the latter half of August 19 76. This value represents 1-5% of the quantity of detritus predicted to have been formed from seaweed litter alone and a lesser percentage of the total quantity of seaweed detritus formed. Exportation out of the seaweed zone is believed to be responsible for this discrepancy. The predicted rates of detritus formation and soluble matter release from decomposing seaweed litter peaked at ca 0.6 and 0.5 g AFDW/m²per day, respectively, in early September 1976 from a low near zero in February. In total, ca 56% of litter biomass formed detritus, the remainder being released as soluble matter. The mean nitrogen contents of the detritus formed and the soluble matter released were 2.48 ± 0.03% and 1.36 ± 0.03% of their dry weights, respectively. The annual contribution of seaweed litter biomass via detritus and soluble matter to local coastal waters is estimated to be in the range of 70-85 g C/m². Detritus formed from seaweed litter was determined to have a C:N ratio of 10-13:1, rendering it suitably nutritious for utilization by fauna as a food resource, however it could not be shown conclusively that the coincidence, en masse, of specific fauna and maximum detritus availability was a response to the availability of detritus as a food resource. The possibility of such a correlation is discussed with reference to two species of caprellids, Caprella alaskana Mayer and Metacaprella anomala Mayer, and the benthic gastropod Lacuna marmorata Dall. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

Populations of Euphausia pacifica Hansen in the Strait of Georgia region which have recently been commercially harvested were studied with respect to life history, distribution and population dynamics in order to examine aspects of the management of the resource. The potential use of local euphausiids as a food item for fish rearing was also evaluated through chemical analyses and feeding trials with juvenile coho salmon. The maximum life span in local populations was 19 months for males and 22 months for females. Spawning, which occurred from May to September, appeared to be closely related to phytoplankton abundance. First-year growth was maximal in summer (0.094 mm/day) but slowed in autumn and halted in winter. Growth in the following year showed a similar pattern. Males appeared to grow faster and experienced size-selective mortality following early maturity (11-12 mm). Survival increased with life phase changes between egg (6%/mo) and early adult stages (68%/mo) but declined sharply for individuals over 18 mm. Total biomass, B, in each population reached a maximum in October-November. Production by E. pacifica , P, in Saanich Inlet during July-November was 26.8 mgC/m²/day (P/B = 8.8), which is similar to that for herbivorous copepods, but higher than a previous estimate for E. pacifica . Juvenile coho salmon at 9 C showed mean growth rates of 3.8%/day on freeze-dried euphausiids compared to 3.0%, 2.7% and 3.1%/day on diets of euphausiid meal, frozen euphausiids and Oregon Moist Pellet, respectively. Local euphausiids have a well-balanced spectrum of amino acids in their proteins and high carotenoid concentrations (80-219 μ/g tissue) , making them suitable for use in aquacultural feeds. British Columbia's euphausiid fishery harvested about 100 metric tons during early 1977; the main uses are as an aquarium fish food and as a dietary supplement in salmon aquaculture. Yield calculations and other management considerations have indicated that the optimal harvesting time for E. pacifica is between October and December rather than from January to March as suggested by government guidelines on plankton harvesting, a limited and carefully monitored euphausiid fishery in the Strait of Georgia region appears to have potential value to the new plankton harvesting industry and to managers of associated fisheries who need further information on zooplankton population dynamics. / Science, Faculty of / Zoology, Department of / Graduate

This thesis investigates a particular cultural period (the Charles Culture) existing from approximately 5500 to 3300 years ago on the Northwest Coast. The Charles Culture consists of three local phases known as Esilao, St. Mungo and Mayne. Three research questions are proposed in this study. The first question deals with the St. Mungo phase and focuses on the degree of cultural variability manifest within this particular sub-phase. Two sites known to contain St. Mungo components (Glenrose Cannery and St. Mungo Cannery) are compared to a third component originally proposed to be representative of the Mayne phase. The hypothesis states that the degree of variability between the three components will be minimal if all three are representative of the St. Mungo phase. This hypothesis is tested using both artifactual and non-artifactual data from the three sites and respective components. Of the three research questions proposed, this one is answered the most successfully. There is little variation present amongst the three components in terms of both artifactual and non-artifactual data. Unexpectedly, it was also demonstrated that while the Charles components from Glenrose and St. Mungo are often discussed interchangeably, there are differences in their artifact assemblages. The second research questions follows from the first and ponders the degree of variability present between the Charles and Locarno Beach components at the Crescent Beach site. A comparison between these two phases from the same site had not been previously possible. The hypothesis states that if the two phases demonstrate continuity with each other, this is evidence of a gradual insitu evolution of the Northwest Coast ethnographic pattern present at contact. This question is not answered as successfully as the first due to the high degree of similarity present between the two artifact assemblages. Several explanations for this are presented. The Locarno Beach artifact assemblage from Crescent Beach is also compared to the typesite artifact assemblage from the Locarno Beach site, with differences between the two components presented and discussed. This was done i n order to determine the feasibility of defining the middle component at Crescent Beach as Locarno Beach in nature. The artifactual differences present are argued to be partially reflective of site function and environmental differences present at the two sites. The final research question concerns the Charles Culture and the feasibility of its existence over such a long time period and physical area. This hypothesis states that there is sufficient cultural similarity present to continue usage of the term Charles Culture. Several components defined as Charles or tentative Charles components are examined. The data is gathered together to present a synopsis of what is known to date concerning the Charles Culture. As with the f i r s t research question, this question focuses on the degree of variability present between the three sub-phases of the Charles Culture (rather than just one) using both artifactual and non-artifactual data. There is some difficulty encountered during this final analysis due to the lack of published data. For example, little is published concerning the Esilao phase, yet it is an integral part of the Charles Culture. Nevertheless, this third research question is answered somewhat affirmatively. This section of my thesis includes further information concerning the placing of the Charles component at Crescent Beach into the St. Mungo phase as well as the status of the Mayne phase. The results of the study indicate that the three research questions and their resulting hypotheses can be answered in the affirmative with varying degrees of success. Recommendations for further research include the need for better published data concerning the early time periods on the Northwest Coast. It is also recommended that future analysis of the Charles Culture incorporate non-artifactual data such as debitage and faunal remains because these types of information are important when doing accurate comparisons of artifact assemblages. Finally, it is also suggested that Northwest Coast archaeologists work together to create more comparable archaeological data. Before one can make firm conclusions about the general research questions pertinent to the prehistory of the Northwest Coast, Northwest Coast archaeologists must start at the beginning and create interchangeable data sets.

This thesis investigates a particular cultural period (the Charles Culture) existing from approximately 5500 to 3300 years ago on the Northwest Coast. The Charles Culture consists of three local phases known as Esilao, St. Mungo and Mayne. Three research questions are proposed in this study. The first question deals with the St. Mungo phase and focuses on the degree of cultural variability manifest within this particular sub-phase. Two sites known to contain St. Mungo components (Glenrose Cannery and St. Mungo Cannery) are compared to a third component originally proposed to be representative of the Mayne phase. The hypothesis states that the degree of variability between the three components will be minimal if all three are representative of the St. Mungo phase. This hypothesis is tested using both artifactual and non-artifactual data from the three sites and respective components. Of the three research questions proposed, this one is answered the most successfully. There is little variation present amongst the three components in terms of both artifactual and non-artifactual data. Unexpectedly, it was also demonstrated that while the Charles components from Glenrose and St. Mungo are often discussed interchangeably, there are differences in their artifact assemblages. The second research questions follows from the first and ponders the degree of variability present between the Charles and Locarno Beach components at the Crescent Beach site. A comparison between these two phases from the same site had not been previously possible. The hypothesis states that if the two phases demonstrate continuity with each other, this is evidence of a gradual insitu evolution of the Northwest Coast ethnographic pattern present at contact. This question is not answered as successfully as the first due to the high degree of similarity present between the two artifact assemblages. Several explanations for this are presented. The Locarno Beach artifact assemblage from Crescent Beach is also compared to the typesite artifact assemblage from the Locarno Beach site, with differences between the two components presented and discussed. This was done i n order to determine the feasibility of defining the middle component at Crescent Beach as Locarno Beach in nature. The artifactual differences present are argued to be partially reflective of site function and environmental differences present at the two sites. The final research question concerns the Charles Culture and the feasibility of its existence over such a long time period and physical area. This hypothesis states that there is sufficient cultural similarity present to continue usage of the term Charles Culture. Several components defined as Charles or tentative Charles components are examined. The data is gathered together to present a synopsis of what is known to date concerning the Charles Culture. As with the f i r s t research question, this question focuses on the degree of variability present between the three sub-phases of the Charles Culture (rather than just one) using both artifactual and non-artifactual data. There is some difficulty encountered during this final analysis due to the lack of published data. For example, little is published concerning the Esilao phase, yet it is an integral part of the Charles Culture. Nevertheless, this third research question is answered somewhat affirmatively. This section of my thesis includes further information concerning the placing of the Charles component at Crescent Beach into the St. Mungo phase as well as the status of the Mayne phase. The results of the study indicate that the three research questions and their resulting hypotheses can be answered in the affirmative with varying degrees of success. Recommendations for further research include the need for better published data concerning the early time periods on the Northwest Coast. It is also recommended that future analysis of the Charles Culture incorporate non-artifactual data such as debitage and faunal remains because these types of information are important when doing accurate comparisons of artifact assemblages. Finally, it is also suggested that Northwest Coast archaeologists work together to create more comparable archaeological data. Before one can make firm conclusions about the general research questions pertinent to the prehistory of the Northwest Coast, Northwest Coast archaeologists must start at the beginning and create interchangeable data sets. / Arts, Faculty of / Anthropology, Department of / Graduate