<p>Godkänd; 1994; 20080401 (ysko)</p>

Målet med arbetet som ligger till grund för licentiatuppsatsen har varit att bestämma behovet av och omfattningen på fält- och laboratorieundersökningar för att erhålla tillförlitliga resultat från beräkningar med programmet Pc-heave. Utgångspunkten har varit att studera om man enbart med en enklare fält- och laboratorieundersökningar kan erhålla ingångsparametrar som ger tillräcklig noggrannhet vid predikteringen av tjällyftning och tjälnedträngning i en jord med hjälp av programmet Pc-heave. Syftet har varit att beräkningen skall vara en prognos och utföras utan att i efterhand behöva anpassa parametrarna för att uppnå överensstämmelse mellan beräknade och uppmätta värden på tjälnedträngning och tjällyftning. Med anpassning av sådana parametrar som, mängd ofruset vatten och permeabilitet, utifrån en kortare tids, en månads, observationer i inledningen av tjälningsperioden erhåller man god överensstämmelse mellan beräknade och uppmätta värden på tjällyftning, islinsernas läge och mäktighet och tjälnedträngningen. Islinsernas läge och mäktighet i den frusna jorden har detekterats med hjälp av röntgenfotografering av upptagna borrkärnor. Ingångsparametrar valda utifrån enklare undersökningar av typen kornfördelning, densitet, vattenkvot eller ytterligare parametrar bland annat ofrusetvatteninnehåll och permeabilitet bestämda i laboratorium ger däremot sämre resultat. / <p>Godkänd; 1999; 20070320 (ysko)</p>

Mining activities have been ongoing for thousands of years within Sweden. As the results of previous activities are evident today, i.e. for example acid mine drainage (AMD), the focus and interest on closure and remediation of mine sites and tailings storage facilities (TSFs) has increased. At present all mines in operation have closure plans according to legal requirements. The purpose of a closure plan is to make sure that the site is safe when the mine comes to an end and the mining company abandons the site. The need for remediation of TSFs, where the fine (crushed and milled) waste material, i.e. tailings, from the process plant is stored, is important with regard to the consequences for the future environment. The composition of the tailings vary, i.e. content of chemicals, minerals etc., from mine site to mine site. Unwanted processes taking place in the tailings within the TSF may result in acidic leachate and leaching of metals and heavy metals from the TSF. These processes will be harmful for the environment and must therefore be prevented or reduced to levels that the environment can handle. They need to be controlled through a proper remediation and closure design of the facility. One method to control these processes is by covering the impoundment with water. One of the most important requirements when using this method is the stability of the tailings dams surrounding the impoundment. Without stable tailing dams the water cover will not stay. Long term stability of tailings dams has been the focus of this research project. Long term has in this case been set to 1000 years or more, which has become an international praxis in the last couple of years. To understand what we need to know in order to achieve long term stable tailings dams several areas have been studied. One idea used, was that we need to know, and understand, how tailings dams in operation perform today in order to understand how they may perform in a long term perspective. This resulted in studies of tailings dam safety in Sweden (see Benckert , 2003 and 2004) and of incidents and failures at Swedish tailings dams (see Bjelkevik, 2005b and 2005c). Another field of importance is the properties of tailings and for dam stability purposes the mechanical properties of tailings as a construction material. Sampling and laboratory tests where performed in 2002/2003 in order to compare the properties of tailings with natural materials (see Bjelkevik and Knutsson, 2005a). The conclusion drawn is that tailings have different properties compared to natural materials and the way of testing tailings material need to be calibrated for these differences. It was also concluded that this is a field requiring much more attention in the future. The focus of this thesis has been the long term dam stability and the factors and processes affecting this. In the State of the Art report (Bjelkevik, 2005d) this is covered and discussed. The most important factors for long term dam stability are: the hydraulic gradient and its relation to internal erosion extreme events like floods, drought, high winds, earthquakes etc. slow deterioration processes like erosion, weathering, frost and ice forces etc. These aspects have been analysed and discussed within the thesis. One valuable source for improving our knowledge on long term stability is natural analogies that have been stable since the last glacial period. Another valuable source is ancient structures, like man made earthen mounds and dams. Existing knowledge of some of these types of structures are presented in the thesis. The author, however, believes that there are a lot more information and knowledge to gain from analysis of these types of structures. Finally, the conclusions from this research project are: no Swedish tailings dams can be regarded as long term stable today it is possible to design long term stable tailings dams more knowledge can be gained from natural analogies and ancient structures the most challenging aspects in designing long term stable tailings dams are probably not the technical aspects, but the non-technical In order to be able to define criteria for long term stable tailings dams several areas need further attention and research. Examples of these areas are: internal erosion long term changes in material properties the effect of the hydraulic gradient on slope stability interaction between tailings material and sealing elements/foundation within the tailings dam external erosion seepage points / <p>Godkänd; 2005; 20061213 (haneit)</p>

Vid gruvbrytning genereras bland annat ett finmalet gråbergsavfall, anrikningssand. Den vanligaste deponeringsmetoden för anrikningssand är att den tillsammans med vatten pumpas eller leds till en gruvdamm. Där deponeras anrikningssanden genom sedimentation. Trots att det är den vanligaste deponeringsmetoden är den behäftad med svagheter. Det uppdämda vattnet i gruvdammen kan ge upphov till incidenter och i olyckliga fall till allvarliga haverier. Ett sätt att minska riskerna och att öka stabiliteten, är att deponeringen sker under dränerade förhållanden. Detta kan åstadkommas med hjälp av sildammar. För att studera funktion och lämplig uppbyggnad av sildammar har ett anta fält- och laboratorieförsök genomförts. Grovkornigt gråbergsavfall, kallat sovringsgråberg, användes när sildammarna byggdes. Sildammarnas uppgift var att hindra flödet av anrikningssand genom filtrering och samtidigt tillåta dränering av inpumpat vatten. Syftet med denna licentiatuppsats har varit att hitta en lämplig design för sildammar. Efter en inledande litteraturstudie byggdes testanläggningar, både som rännförsök och i pilotskala. I testanläggningarna testades olika sildammar genom att dess filtrerande och dränerande förmåga undersöktes. Testerna föregicks av laboratorieförsök där sildammsmaterialens hydrauliska konduktivitet undersöktes. Testerna visar att vid valet av lämpligt material för sildammar, kan filterkriteria användas tillsammans med bedömningar av materialets hydrauliska konduktivitet. Finns inte lämpligt sovringsgråberg att tillgå, kan geotextiler användas som filter i en sildamm. Sildammarnas filtrerande förmåga beräknades som verkningsgrader, vilka låg mellan 34 - 100 % beroende på sildammarnas design. Sildammarnas dränerande förmåga beräknades i det deponerade materialet med hjälp av uppmätta och beräknade porvattentryck. Porvattentrycken sjönk mellan 60 - 100 % under testperioden. Testerna visar att det deponerade materialets egenskaper påverkas av den inpumpade mängden av vatten och anrikningssand samt av sildammarnas funktion. Där sildammens filtrerande förmåga var hög, tog det längre tid innan det deponerade materialet dränerades. Vidare påverkas sildammarnas funktion av det deponerade materialets egenskaper. Vid deponeringen skedde en partikelsegregering, då de tyngsta partiklarna sedimenterade närmast inloppsröret medan lättare partiklar transporterades längre innan de sedimenterade. Denna segregation påverkar sildammens dränerande funktion negativt. Sildammen kan inte filtrera enbart de finkornigaste partiklarna samtidigt som sildammen skall dränera det inpumpade vattnet. Ju mer omfattande partikelsegregationen är och ju bättre sildammen kan hindra de finkornigaste partiklarna, desto större kommer sättningarna i det sedimenterade materialet bli nära sildammen. Detta kan försvåra dränering av ytvattnet. Testerna genomfördes sommartid. Framtida undersökningar bör koncentreras på att anpassa metoden även för vinterförhållanden. Vidare bör materialprover tas för att få en bättre uppskattning av partikelsegregationen. Målet är att kunna beräkna deponins optimala storlek. Slutligen bör ytterligare fältförsök genomföras där anrikningssanden deponeras i våningar. Vid dessa försök bör det deponerade materialets dräneringsförmåga ytterligare utredas tillsammans med undersökningar av eventuella erosionsproblem i underliggande sildammar från dränerat vattnet. / Godkänd; 2005; 20061215 (haneit)

Tunnels have been built since 2180 B.C., through the stone age. They became popular worldwide since the eighteenth century, as transportation, military, mining, conveyance, storage and flood control structures. Due to the increasing world population, urbanization and industrialization, the construction of underground tunnel structures are preferred as they limit interferences with existing surface uses of the land and water bodies. Although underground tunnels are a common flexible construction alternative, they are high hazard risk structures. The risks are mostly related to ground conditions. Tunnels buried at depth disturb in-situ conditions, cause ground instability and ultimately failure. Widespread tunnel failures, though not publicly advertised because of their adverse implications, have claimed human lives, cleared cities, cost 100 million United States dollars' worth in financial losses and year-long project delays. As such, stability of the structures is crucial to prevent the catastrophes thereby reducing societal outcries. Permanency of underground structures is ensured by provision of adequate resistance to any impeding failure of the ground surrounding deep underground excavations. The effectiveness of the ground-support interaction depends on geology, material properties, geotechnical parameters, loads of the surrounding ground mass and mechanism of the interaction. Using actual project information, the factors influencing stability, structural resistance as well as methods to select the required support are explored in this dissertation. The study used typical geological data of an underground tunnel component of Karuma, a proposed 600MW hydropower project in Uganda. It doubles as the largest hydropower project and first underground construction, to date. The project is located along the River Nile in a sensitive ecosystem neighboring both a major national park and the Great Rift Valley system in East Africa. The instability problem at Karuma was assessed using scientific and universal tunneling practice. Typical site data formed input for the geotechnical engineering design of the tunnel support based on analytical, observational and empirical methods. The study demonstrated that all methods were independent and dissimilar for the same geotechnical engineering challenge of the underground structure. The most comprehensive method was the one based on geotechnical engineering principles and rock mechanics theory. The outcomes of the different approaches in this study were unique functions of their underlying scientific philosophies. The study proposes that in designing adequate support systems to resist forces causing failure of underground tunnels, excavations buried in the ground should encompass several methods. The most conservative design should be chosen to ensure permanency.

Densification of soil during construction of earth structures is achieved through the process of compaction by application of mechanical energy to obtain the required engineering properties of the soil for a particular project such as hydraulic conductivity, soil strength and compressibility. These properties are dependent on attainment of high compaction densities normally achieved at specific moisture contents for a given compactive effort. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density for a particular soil is determined by means of Proctor tests in the laboratory. A relative compaction index is then used to correlate the laboratory values with the field compaction values obtained using in-situ tests. The Sand Cone (SC) and Nuclear Density Gauge (NDG) are the common field tests used to the dry density and moisture content of the soil for purposes of quality control of the compaction process. The sand cone is a laborious test that involves excavation of part of the compacted layer and requires a 24-hour waiting period to obtain the moisture content of the soil through the laboratory oven method. The NDG on the other hand is less laborious, however it uses a radioactive source that is a potential health hazard and therefore requires strict handling, storage and maintenance of the equipment to maintain safety standards. The Electrical Density Gauge (EDG) is an alternative in-situ test that is quicker, safer and easier to maintain since it uses electric current to measure the compaction characteristics of the soil. The objective of the study was to determine the repeatability, accuracy and applicability of the EDG on South African soils by comparing its measurements for dry density and moisture content in the laboratory and in the field to the results from the sand cone and oven method. In the laboratory, a clean sand and a clayey sand were tested at the optimum moisture content and at ± 3% of the optimum moisture content. The soils were compacted to 200 mm using the RT74 rammer and the compaction values first tested using the EDG then followed by the sand cone test at the centre of the EDG test spot. The moisture content of the excavated sample from the sand cone test was determined using the oven method. For the field tests, the compaction characteristics of a sandy gravel and three uniformly graded sands were tested in-situ using the EDG followed by the sand cone test. Overall, the EDG measurements were repeatable based on test-retest comparison of the paired measurements. EDG results for moisture content were consistent with the values obtained from the laboratory oven method especially in the uniformly graded sands. However, the density measurements differed from the results of the sand cone test, which was considered the reference test for determination of field soil density. It is recommended that the EDG calibration relationship for bulk density be revised in order to improve the accuracy of the density measurements.

Three papers form the present thesis. In paper I a numerical model for calculation of surface temperatures on a highway is presented. The model takes all relevant factors into consideration, i.e. conduction, wind, short- and long wave radiation. Temperatures obtained by the model are compared with those measured in a highway pavement. A good correlation is obtained. The model is using the position of the sun as input data and is not considering noon time conditions all the day, as in many other models for surface temperature calculation. In paper II and III a simple numerical model for calculation of frost depth and frost heave in highways is presented. Calculation results are compared with data obtained from two different test sites. Comparison is also made to laboratory tests conducted by using a new laboratory-testing device, developed by the author. The equipment is described in paper III. It is further argued, that frost heave to great extent is caused by ice lenses formed by water from the pores in unfrozen soil and only to a minor extent by water taken from the ground water, which is normally assumed. Good correlation is found between calculated and observed frost penetration and frost heave, in both field and laboratory condition. Special attention is paid to the influence of heave rate and water intake rate. / Godkänd; 2000; 20070318 (ysko)

tabilization and solidification (S/S) technique have been the most frequently used method for dredgedsediment improvement in Sweden and worldwide. As dredging activities are essential for safe navigationof ships and vessels that may processes harmful substances or organic pollutants to causecontamination of the surrounding environment. Stabilization/solidification technology has beenidentified as the most beneficial handling strategy for contaminated dredged sediments and treatedstabilized materials can be used in civil engineering applications (e.g. backfill or embankment). This (S/S)technique is the easiest way of improving high water content dredged sediments using different types ofbinders. During the stabilization process, dredged sediments are mixed with commonly used binders,such as Portland cement, fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (Merit 5000). Nowadays,supplementary cementitous materials such as (fly ash and blast furnace slag) are being used increasinglyconsidering long term strength development of stabilized dredged materials instead of using morecement. Generally, cement hydration is a complex chemical-reactions. By addition of supplementarycementitious materials, it becomes more complex because of cement hydration and pozzolanicreactions. The overall objective of this thesis work is to improve the understanding of compressibilityand strength behavior of stabilized dredged materials. To achieve these objectives, a series ofunconfined compressive strength tests and consolidation tests were performed on stabilized dredgedmaterials (SDM) with different types and mixing ratios of binders. These lab tests have been focused onthe compressibility and strength properties of stabilized materials. The UCS test determines the amountof binders and curing time needed to achieve the required shear strength of SDM. The outcomes of thisthesis work show that the stabilized dredged sediments constitute of binder mixing ratio (Cement:Flyash:Merit 5000 as a proportion of 10:10:5) which is 25% of the total fresh dredged sediments can’tsustain any superstructure or surcharge load but it can only be used as backfill materials on site.Whereas, stabilized dredged material with binder mixing ratio (Cement:Fly ash:Merit 5000 as aproportion of 20:20:10) which is 50% of the total fresh dredged Sediment becomes stiff after 28 dayscuring and becomes very stiff after 91 days curing. It becomes obvious that the unconfined compressivestrength of SDM increases with higher amount of binders and longer curing time. The pozzolanicreaction continues after 28 days curing period. The presence of supplementary cementitous materials(fly ash, blast furnace slag and merit 5000) can improve the ductility of stabilized dredged materials(SDM) in the post-peak strength degradation zone without changing the unconfined compressivestrength. It is also obvious from the test results that the UCS values of stabilized dredged materialsincrease with decreasing moisture content/increasing bulk density. The consolidation properties of SDMare greatly influenced by the binder mixing ratio, curing time and preloading weight. Due to preloadingweight, the deformation in stabilized dredge sediments is irreversible because of cementation andpozzolanic effects. Considering both curing time and binder ratio, compression index (Cc) and swellingindex (Cs) values for SDM with binder ratio (20:20:10) have been lowered approximately by 75% and67%, respectively than SDM with binder ratio (10:10:5). After 91 days curing of SDM with binder ratio(20:20:10), the maximum value of tangent modulus is estimated about 9624 kPa which indicates thatthe superstructure can be erected on stabilized dredged materials. It is also concluded that physicochemicalvariables control the consolidation behavior of stabilized dredge materials (SDM) as thecoefficient of consolidation (Cv) value decreases with increasing consolidation pressure.

Free mica particles in crushed rock aggregates for constructional purposes affect the quality of the end product. It is also known that mica-bearing rocks may cause damages of the road constructions, especially in regions with a temperate climate. The negative influence arises in both bounded and unbounded layers. The deterioration of the construction is related to the ability of mica particles to be released during crushing and to concentrate in the aggregate fine fractions. As the free mica particles absorb and hold liquid such as bitumen and water, the unbounded base course becomes susceptible to frost weathering and the mechanical properties of the asphalt mixture are negatively influenced. The water absorption ability is in turn caused by an increased specific surface area of the fine fraction depending on the grain shape of mica particles and their intra crystalline cavities. The aim of the present study was to investigate, emphasise, and contribute to an understanding of the performance of free mica particles in the fine fractions of crushed rock aggregates. The free mica problems are well- known, but sparsely taken into account in projecting and prospecting activities. The mineralogical composition (i.e. the quality) of the rock material is often a subordinated task in early stages in planning for roads and railways. Connected with establishment of quarries the estimation of rock materials quality is generally based on petrographic and mechanical analyses of drill-cores.The study presented consists of: * The investigation of the ability of free mica particles to enrich in fine fractions of granitoid crushed rock aggregates. The comparison study to examine a possible correlation between the content of mica in original rock materials, the content of free mica particles in rock aggregate products, and the content of free mica particles in drill cuttings. * The development of a method to estimate free mica particles in aggregate fine fractions using image analysis of grain mounts. * The development and practical applicability of a method to estimate rock aggregates quality using analyses of drill cuttings. The study reveals that mica-bearing rocks exposed to mechanical impact release free mica particles that concentrate in the fine fractions of crushed rock aggregates. The original grain size of mica in the host rock is suggested to influence on the process. Coarse-grained rocks seem to separate free mica grains in earlier phases of the crushing process than fine-grained ones. The enrichment is suggested to depend on the textural characteristics of the rock rather than on the mineralogical composition. These aspects must be taken into consideration when the grain size fractions for analyses of free mica content are selected. The statistical evaluation of the new method for estimation of free mica particles points out its certainty and repeatability. Due to the possibility to save the images of the statistical operation, the results of the method are controllable. These factors mentioned make the method satisfactory and statistically acceptable from a scientific point of view. The concept using drill cuttings for estimation of rock aggregates quality is practically tested and evaluated as an effective field method. The further development and calibration should focus on improvement of sampling concerning the content of coarse drill cuttings. The homogeneity/heterogeneity of the bedrock is crucial for the selection of the samples and stresses the necessity of representative sampling. / <p>Godkänd; 2008; 20080521 (ysko)</p>

The thesis presents series of laboratory studies of aggregates containing mica minerals obtained from aggregate producers located throughout Sweden. The main idea of the research was to study physical properties and behaviour of free mica particles in unbound granular products of crushed rock materials. Another objective was to highlight the detrimental properties of mica occurrence in aggregates used for road construction industry and determine the applicable methods for quantitative determination of mica minerals presence. Due to the lack of previous investigations looking at this or similar subject, the current research can have international importance, especially for countries with crystalline, mica rich bedrock and temperate, subarctic climates. Recently a number of cases involving road construction failures and decrease in service life have been observed in northern parts of Sweden. One of the major reasons for the structural deterioration was enrichment of free mica particles in aggregates and their interaction with water. Due to this reason first paper of this thesis represents a study of the behaviour of free mica grains in crushed rock aggregates of metamorphic origin and recognition of any trend of enrichment of free mica grains aggregates. As a result two general trends of enrichment of mica were obtained: Type I (isotropic source rock) and Type A (anisotropic source rock). Type I is exemplified by a general increase of free mica towards finer grain fractions, with or without a peak for "coarser" grain fractions. Type A represents an increase of free mica up to a certain grain fraction, thereafter no increase occurs towards finer grain fractions. Second part of the thesis focuses on the determination of the possible analytical methods which are susceptible to mica content and could be used as indicating technique for quantitative determination of free mica particles in unbound granular materials. Two standard methods: Sand equivalent test and Methylene blue test were assumed as the most sensitive to mica presence. Both methods showed susceptibility to mica content and gave strong correlation in terms of mica content. The third paper enhances knowledge of the behaviour of mica rich aggregates in interaction with water in terms of fraction sizes and free mica content. During the experiment several aggregates with different content of free mica and pure mica material consisting of commercial biotite were studied. Two major parameters were investigated during the research: water storage capacity and specific water saturation value. With the aid of consecutive analytical and statistical analyses a more precise mica presence threshold value for certain unbound applications was indicated, resulting in recommendations for industry, authorities and for future experiments. / <p>Godkänd; 2008; 20080616 (ysko)</p>