Fine-grained soils are responsible for most site settlements through a time dependent process known as consolidation. The magnitude of consolidation is quantified with three terms: the recompression and compression indices, referred to as the soil's compressibility indices, and preconsolidation pressure. The ideal methods to estimate these parameters are direct measurements from lab or in-situ field tests, other method include estimation from experience or from correlations to soil parameters. This study refines correlations between compressibility indices and index properties as previously researchers and soil mechanics suggest a strong correlation exists. This study also suggests a correlation to CPT parameters as this test is commonly used and has the potential to provide continuous and repeatable compressibility profiles. It was found that compressibility is strongly related to the CPT pore pressure reading for soils with pronounced colloidal properties. It was also found that the correlation to moisture content performed better than all previous recommended models.

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Grouting is used in underground construction to reduce the water flow into tunnels and caverns and to limit the lowering of the surrounding groundwater table. Due to their wide availability and low cost relative to other materials, cement based materials are commonly used as grouts and, in this context, the rheology of the cement grout is an important factor. Rheological properties of cement grout such as viscosity and yield stress are commonly measured off-line using laboratory instruments, and some simple tools are available to make field measurements. However, these methods often lack accuracy and reliability. Although the rheological properties of the grout used play a fundamental role in design and execution, no method has yet been developed to measure these properties in-line in field work.   In this work, for the first time, an in-line rheometry method combining the Ultrasound Velocity Profiling (UVP) technique with Pressure Difference (PD) measurements, known as “UVP+PD”, was successfully tested for continuous in-line measurements of concentrated micro cement based grouts. The feasibility of using the UVP+PD method depends on the in-line determination of the rheological properties and time dependent behaviour of the cement grouts. A test set-up consisting of a combination of an experimental “flow loop” and a conventional field grouting rig – UNIGROUT E22H – from AtlasCopco, was used to investigate the feasibility of determining the rheological properties of cement grout using the UVP+PD method under field conditions. A laboratory based test set-up was used to further investigate the rheological properties in a more controlled environment.   The velocity profiles were measured directly in-line. The shape of the velocity profiles was visualized, and the change in the shape of the profiles with concentration and time was observed. The viscosity and yield stress of the grout were determined using rheological models, e.g. Bingham and Herschel-Bulkley. In addition, rheological properties were determined using the non-model approach (gradient method) and the tube viscometry concept and were compared with results obtained using the rheological models. In addition, the obtained rheological properties were subsequently compared with off-line measurements using a conventional rotational rheometer.  The UVP+PD method was found to be capable of determining the true rheological behavior of cement grout regardless of the rheological model, providing the opportunity to visualize the change in the shape of the velocity profiles. Furthermore, it was possible to make an accurate determination of the velocity by ultrasound velocity profiling at a very flow rate (i.e. 1liter/min). The ultrasound velocity profiling was also found to be a reliable tool for determining the characteristics of the grout pump. In conclusion, the UVP+PD method was demonstrated to be a promising new in-line tool for determining the rheological properties of commonly used cement based grouts and the changes with concentration and time. / <p>QC 20130530</p>

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The finite element method (FEM) has been widely used to analyse earth and rockfill dams. In a finite element analysis a proper constitutive model has to be chosen for each part of the dam in order to simulate the relation between stresses and strains. The zones of an earth and rockfill dam have different functions. Because of that the zones normally consist of various soil types for which the stress/strain response could vary considerably. For each dam zone, suitable values have to be assigned to the parameters included in the constitutive model chosen. In general, laboratory tests and/or field tests of the soil are needed as a basis for this parameter evaluation. However, many dams are old and limited information might be available regarding the soil materials being used in the dam structures. In dams, it is normally very difficult to take up soil samples for testing, especially from the central impervious part, since this might affect the dam performance and the safety of the dam. For dams it would be advantageous if constitutive parameter values could be determined with some non-destructive method. Inverse analysis provides a possibility to determine the constitutive behaviour of different materials within the dam structure under the condition that the dams have been equipped with various instrumentations, for monitoring dam performance, which record data such as pore pressures, deformations, total stresses and seepage etc. In the method of inverse analysis, two separate parts are included: (1) an optimization method consisting of an error function and a search algorithm and (2) a numerical method to solve the partial differential equations arising in stress-strain analysis of structures. In this study, inverse analysis of a dam case was performed with a commercial finite element program Plaxis and the genetic algorithm was utilized as the search algorithm in the optimization method. The genetic algorithm was chosen due to its robustness and efficiency, particularly since it provides a set of solutions close to the optimum solution instead of one unique answer; a set of solutions is more practical from a geotechnical perspective. In the proposed inverse analysis a finite element model is calibrated automatically by changing the values of the input parameters of the selected constitutive model in different dam zones until the discrepancy between the measured results by dam instrumentations and the corresponding computed results is minimized.In order to examine the efficiency and robustness of the genetic algorithm, the research was initially focused on a synthetic case study. The synthetic case, a set of model parameters known in advance, is a good test of the mathematical basis used in the optimization, i.e. the objective function and the search algorithm. The Mohr-Coulomb model was chosen for all dam zones, as an initial choice for this research, chiefly because of its simplicity. A very good agreement for the optimization against the synthetic case was obtained. The practical outcome of an inverse analysis clearly depends on the ability of the constitutive models chosen to capture the real soil behaviour in the different dam zones. A proper choice of a constitutive model provides an opportunity to calibrate the finite element model properly. Therefore, in the next step the Hardening soil model, an advanced constitutive model, was chosen for optimization on the dam. In this part of the research, two cases (A and B) based on different reservoir water levels and number of berms constructed, were analysed. All the data of horizontal displacement were received from exactly the same positions in the geometry as the measurements carried out with the single inclinometer. The results of inverse analyses showed that the Hardening soil model is able to capture better the soil displacements within the dam structure, especially at the crest part, compared to the Mohr-Coulomb model.Finally, it was concluded that inverse analysis is a practical tool for identifying soil material properties of earth and rockfill dams and provides a non-destructive method for dam engineers to obtain more information about the dams. Moreover, if inverse analysis applications become available in commercial finite element software, it would certainly be a valuable tool for dam engineers assessing dam performance and dam safety.

Upstream tailings dams may experience slope stability problems when the rate of raising is too fast. Tailings consolidate slowly due to low hydraulic conductivity. The excess pore pressures can build up due to accelerated rate of raising. The cumulative increase in excess pore pressures due to successive raisings can endanger slope stability of a tailings dam. The stability of a tailings dam is closely related to the consolidation process. The consolidation process and associated stability of an upstream tailings dam during staged construction was modelled with the finite element program PLAXIS. The analysis indicated that the stability of the dam reduced during raising due to increase of excess pore pressures. The safety of the dam was improved by adding rockfill banks on the downstream side. The volume of the rockfill banks was minimized with an optimization technique. This technique involves (i) construction of a rockfill bank on the downstream side when the factor of safety is less than a permissible limit, (ii) utilization of a minimum volume of the rockfill that is necessary to stabilize the slope. This technique can be practicable when the rate of raising is moderate, and partial consolidation occurs between consecutive raisings. Numerical analysis was also performed on a curved embankment of an upstream tailings dam in order to investigate the possible risk of hydraulic fracturing and internal erosion in a corner of the dam. The analysis showed that low compressive stresses occurred above the phreatic level, near the zones of filter and rockfill banks. These zones contain coarse material, and are, therefore, not susceptible to hydraulic fracturing and internal erosion. An increase in the radius of the corner is suggested in order to prevent large reductions in compressive stresses that may occur due to future raisings. Presently the curved dam section is stable. However, an additional rockfill bank on the downstream side will be required for future raisings. Static liquefaction is considered as a common cause of disastrous flow failures of tailings dams. These flow failures can be predicted with numerical modelling using suitable constitutive models. In this context, some constitutive models capable of simulating static liquefaction behaviour of loose saturated sands are reviewed. It is generally concluded that the finite element method can be a helpful tool for modelling stability of tailings dams.

The increasing demand of metals and minerals has made it economical for the mining industry to mine low-grade deposits, which results in immense quantities of by-products. In fact, such by-products, i.e. tailings, are the largest waste volumes produced on earth. Ore from sulfide rich geological formations result in sulfide rich tailings that can cause major environmental problems upon oxidation and acidic seepage. One way of economically and effectively preventing unwanted chemical reactions and leaching is the deposition in an impoundment surrounded by tailings dams, where tailings are allowed to settle and covered effectively by a water level against oxidation.In order to prevent environmental impacts and possible long term contamination from tailings dams, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvårdsverket), demands a long term stability without maintenance that refers to thousands of years or more, resulting in a design period of 1000 years for tailings dams. The stability of tailings dams in long term perspective depends, amongst others, on the prevention of internal erosion, a process that results from an exceeding seepage pressure causing particles in a dam to migrate, with possible consequences of damage and failure of the dam construction. Therefore, the main question in this thesis is: Which maximum hydraulic gradient can we allow for a tailings dam construction in order to prevent internal erosion in a long term perspective?With regard to the long term design of tailings dams, natural analogies to dam constructions are considered, i.e. formations from the last glaciation period that have fulfilled the task of damming water. Such structures are especially interesting with regard to their obvious stability against internal erosion over long time, otherwise they did not exist today. Consequently, it is assumed that a critical hydraulic gradient exists, and that the material composition and compaction reaches an optimum which allows seepage without erosion. This study provides basic knowledge on tailings dam construction and a State-of-the-Art report on current knowledge on internal erosion. A summary of natural analogies to dam constructions that have been stable dams since the last glaciation in Sweden is presented. In the context of this work, a case study was conducted at the company area of Boliden in Gällivare, northern Sweden, with the aim to study the geotechnical properties of such a natural stable embankment. This case study includes field studies, ground water monitoring and sampling. Complementing laboratory analysis covers an analysis of the materials' properties with regard to composition, density, compaction and hydraulic conductivity. The formation consist of a well graded glacial till which is compacted to an optimum in situ above what could be obtained in laboratory conditions. The hydraulic conductivity of laboratory compacted samples shows a minimum of 2,60 * 10-10, which implies that the material is practically impermeable, which may be an explanation for the absence of ground water during monitoring.Critical hydraulic gradients found in literature range between 4,8 and 14 %. Current tailings dam design guidelines in Sweden relate the maximum gradient to the internal angle of friction, thus resulting in gradients of about 12 to 27 %. Gradients in long term stable natural formations are between 2 to 5 %. The calculated hydraulic gradient in the case study is 6,7 %; however, the actual gradient could not be determined due to the absence of pore pressure measurements during ground water monitoring. With regard to long term stability, possible degradation and results from comparisons to long term stable natural analogies, a modification of the design criteria for Swedish tailings dams should be considered.