Bibliography: pages 261-275. / This thesis analyses the literary representation of the Volga-German population group during the Third Reich, using eleven fictional historical accounts, contrasting them with respect to three aspects: their history and the real conditions of existence of this linguistic enclave, psychological and sociological issues of the identity of minorities and the intertextuality of the works and the period of their publication. The themes of the primary literature are categorised according to historical criteria, because the narrative shows a close proximity to historical reality, despite its ideological colouring. The representation of the settlement in Russia emphasises the difficulties facing the emigrants, and creates the basis for the Volga-German self-concept as a "highly productive, rural population group". The considerable disadvantages of their separatism, however, are interpreted as an advantage, a "guard for culture". A comparison with publications from the early twentieth century illustrates that the pan-germanic propaganda of all ethnic Germans as an international family (Volksgemeinschaft) has been combined with Volga-German separatism to form a ''volkisch"-nationalist discourse; without, however, demanding an "Anschluss" to Germany. Only after the bolshevist destruction of the Volga-German way of life, the characters project their hopes towards Germany. During World War One, they already experience a distinct sympathy for Germany, which is emphasised all the more in retrospective to avoid recognising the escape of individual characters to Germany, the "mother country", as sheer opportunism. Descriptions of the atrocities of the time of revolution and civil war serve to legitimate the escape, but also to set a memorial to the suffering of the Volga-Germans. Some authors attempt to find a meaning for the destruction of their home in Russia through no fault of the group, by postulating a collective fate of all Germans in the world. The reader in the Third Reich, however, would perceive this suffering of German people as anti-Soviet propaganda. The authors do not understand that the national-socialist interest in ethnic Germans was a political strategy, to which they unwittingly contributed since they were unable to place the "volkisch"-national theme in its correct position in the Reich. Early soviet-German representations of this population group emphasise the gradual rebuilding after the revolution, but attribute its success to the socialist system. Volga-German traditions are negated, while the unlimited optimism typical for Socialist Realism abounds. These accounts lack a critical analysis of the drastic changes, as shown, for instance, in the Cossack main character of the lauded novel, And Quiet flows the Don by Mikhail Sholokhov, making him a tragic hero, and hence they form the opposite of the conservative refugees' narratives.

Bibliography: pages 401-417. / The question whether the critical tools developed by, the structuralist approach can stand up to a text which alienates or deviates from traditional narrative discourse is one of the main theoretical concerns of this thesis. The investigation is based on two premises: firstly, that the contemporary novel is as much the literary expression of bourgeois consciousness as its predecessor in the 18th and 19th centuries, whose mode of expression was that of realism; secondly, that the paradigm shift from classic bourgeois realism to the modern novel must be seen as a dialectic process: modern fiction can thus be said to be engaged in an intertextual dialogue with traditional realist discourse. In confronting the method and conclusions of S/Z by Roland Barthes with a contemporary text, the thesis aims to reflect this dialogue on a meta-literary level. Starting from a detailed analysis of the structural elements of the text and their arrangement, the thesis proceeds to a description of the technique of deviation on the microstructural level as well as in conjunction with contextual, ideological and symbolic reference. The complex relation between fiction and reality is then investigated with regard to the configuration and in conjunction with the notion of identity, the focal point of the novel. Handke's complex understanding of reality and consequently also his response to the realist tradition are derived from the unstated realization of the fictionality of the bourgeois concept of the subject. This is the background to the discussion of the structures of traditional realist discourse and the ambivalent portrayal of reality in Handke's novel, which amounts to the application of realist discourse in order to subvert it. Finally, Handke's rigorous anti-ideological position is evaluated in conjunction with Bakhtin's theory of the dialogic text and the concept of intertextuality as developed by Julia Kristeva. While Handke's novel can thus be seen to be critical both in its perception of, and response to contemporary reality and in its refusal to accept any systematic modes of thought, its contradictions remain unresolved since it registers but does not transcend the problematic nature of the core of bourgeois ideology, the self-image of the subject.

In this thesis the written sources of the following travellers have been analysed: Gustav Theodor Fritsch (Drei Jahre in Südafrika, 1868), Theodor Hermann Wangemann (Ein Reise-Jahr in Südafrika, 1868) and Ernst von Weber (Vier Jahre in Afrika, 1878). The main focus is on the perception of the foreign country with its foreign people and different landscape. Each German traveller is studied as a unique example of experiencing the "other" land in his own special way. Travel writings are perceived as scientific, completely rational texts but they contain subjective fictional descriptions of reality as well; the reason why I focussed on the question how a person in the previous century from another continent with a different ideology and mentality reflected the region of Southern Africa. Travelling is at its height in the 19th century, through various continents by different kinds of people. Most of these travellers wanted to gain knowledge about the area visited and its inhabitants in order to "transport" via written texts the facts found and data collected to their European home countries. In my examination these texts are seen as "cultural documents" which express not only the reaction caused by the confrontation with totally foreign forms of life but at the same time they are considered as the indirect representation of the German home culture. The moral values and cultural characteristics of Germany played a significant role during the production of each travelogue. That is the reason why the textual product is also a self-portrayal of the author: his prejudices, his view of the world and his valuation of his home country. The collision of the European and with the so-called Other and the effects on the traveller are of main interest in this thesis. The postmodern theory of the "colonial discourse" was used as an analysing method in order to demonstrate that each encouter with the Other produces a different kind of response from the traveller in its own special environment.

Includes bibliographical references. / Nietzsche himself has placed the problem of décadence into the centre of his thinking. But he mistrusts any definitions which tear concepts out of the context of their becoming and reduce them to a static 'meaning. In his analysis of décadence there a no unambiguous causes and effects. The very historical breadth and ambivalence of the word ' décadence ' does not allow the unambiguous assignation of the word to a 'meaning. Nietzsche's remarks about décadence allow us to postulate two hypotheses as their basis: the first, 'Darwinist' hypothesis would be that occidental culture impedes the development of humanity because it makes 'natural selection' ineffective. The second, 'historico-philosophical' hypothesis would be: everything has existed before, nothing changes, there is neither progress nor degeneration. Nietzsche uses the discoveries of the natural sciences of his time to question radically the separation between biology and culture, natural history and human history, physis and psyche. One of the dominant themes of physiology of the 19th century was the boundary between the pathological and the normal. Nietzsche transfers the medical scheme of diagnosis, aetiology and prognosis to a social and cultural phenomenon such as décadence. In contrast to a conservative critique of culture Nietzsche does not bemoan the disintegration of eternal values, which are supposed to underpin a High Culture, but questions the values of religions and philosophies themselves which pretend to be eternal but subordinate life to false aims. Nietzsche drafts a psycho-pathology of the type of the décadence, the embodiment of which is the Christian. Nietzsche sees the "nihilist religions all as: systematis[ed] stories of illness in a religious-moral terminology". In the centre of the psychopathology of Christianity Nietzsche makes out the negation of the body. Nietzsche terms the movement which opposes all idealisms a nihilism. Nihilism derives from the understanding that the highest philosophical, religious and ethical values have become devalued. The understanding that truth is based on mere appearance and that it is no 'thing as such', as believed by Platonic and Christian tradition, leads to a renunciation of the truth claim.

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Early German Romanticism is a period associated in literary analysis with the emancipation of women. Two women writers of the time. Bettine von Arnim and Karoline von Günderrode take up the Romantic view of literature as an emancipating medium. The thesis refers to Romanticism to define the concepts of feminity, literature and emancipation within their historical context. Romanticism attempts a dialogue between the self and its other, and ultimately re-defines woman as the other of the author male. Friedrich Schlegel's novel Lucinde is analysed as a paradigmatic example of the identification of the self through the medium of literature. The writings of Bettine and Karoline have been analysed as early examples of a feminist literary tradition from the standpoint of feminist theory located in the context of modern women's movements. By way of contrast to Romantic literary theory, this feminist literary theory is expressed as a perceived continuity of women's experience. The concept of self-realisation of women authors through literature is examined from the standpoint of understanding literary texts as objectification of self. French feminist criticism is employed to analyse the relation of feminity to systems of representations from the perspective of modern textual practice. It is argued that Bettine's novel is structured around the literary correspondence between herself and Karoline in which they were able to create a "free-space" (Freiraum) in order to discuss their alienation from society. In realising Romanticism's concept of a dialogue. Bettine achieves a new concept of authorship which allows a representation of female desire, as defined by French theory, through a reflection in Karoline as her other. While both women enjoy the advantage of education. Bettine rejects this as an example of male norms. Karoline imitates these norms to emancipate herself. Karoline identifies with the dominant aesthetic norms in her poetry in an attempt at identification. Her letters, on the other hand, reflect a modern experience of discontinuity of self, which she explains as a result of the absence of social practice in the society of her time and the limitations imposed on her as a woman. In the thesis, it is concluded that Karoline's production is difficult to reconcile with either of the above literary theories. Neither Karoline's nor Bettine's literature can be seen as representative of a unified female subject. The medium of literature enables the development of an aesthetic subjectivity, which, it is argued, can be applied to women-specific" (frauenspezifisch) criticism.

Bibliography: pages 226-230. / The problem of artistic endeavour and recognition of creative imaginative writing at a time of revolutionary scientific and industrial activity, brings into focus the re-evaluation of the artist during intense economic development. The intellectual crisis of the artist in Germany, 1870-1895, is strongly influenced by the emphasis on financial success and scientific observation. This emphasis is linked to the new aesthetic and artistic expectations, which are influenced by the political and social reality of the industrial age. Naturalism is characterised by an abundance of theoretical literature; Arno Holz is regarded as the greatest of the theorists and his work Papa Hamlet, written together with Johannes Schlaf, is an attempt to combine theoretical consideratiohs with the "new" art. This thesis critically examines Papa Hamlet against the background of social, political and economic change. The investigation into four major areas includes firstly the intellectual crisis in relation to the "Grunderzeit"; the sentimental art of this period is strongly rejected as it in no way reflects the reality of the industrial age. It is vitally important for the artists to be seen as modern, reflecting the truth of the age in which they write. This truth requires the work of art to be as close a reproduction of nature, of real life, as possible. Attention to detail becomes vital and leads Arno Holz to the "Sekundenstil." Secondly, this thesis confronts Papa Hamlet with theoretical background as defined by Arno Holz. Thirdly the attempt made by Holz and Schlaf not to interfere as authors between the piece of prose and the reader, leads to the question of prose versus drama. The investigation leads also into the problem of the lower middle class artist who is confronted by economic difficulties and finds himself threatened by the working class. Thienwiebel's perseverance as "Hamlet", symbolic of an art no longer acceptable, brings a discussion on the traditional German "Bildungsroman". Finally, Arno Holz maintains that Art can only be revolutionised if language is revolutionised; these claims are examined in Papa Hamlet. It is my contention that the artist's claim of being democratic is strongly to be questioned as Papa Hamlet can only be really appreciated by readers who have studied Hamlet by Shakespeare. The greatest achievement by the Naturalists lies in questioning existing values; scientific observation and creative spirit. The Art of Arno Holz, in particular the "Sekundenstil", may be seen to be the· forerunner of Expressionism, Surrealism and Dadaism.

The emerging body of literature defined in German literary circles as Auslӓnderliteratur or during the seventies as Gastarbeiterliteratur, forms the field of this research. The authors are foreigners living in Germany who write in Germanbut for whom German is not their mother-tongue. This dissertation uses the definition"deutsche lmmigrationsliteratur'', with the understanding that an attempt to define a body of literature is inherently problematical and lends itself too easily to categorisation and prejudices. This, in terms of current thinking within the minority discourse, perpetuates "colonialism" within the context of language and literature.(What is meant by prejudices in this context is the thinking that these writings are primarily ethnographic documents with the obligatory exotic flavour, and therefore not to be taken seriously as literary texts. The historical analysis of the dissertation however shows, that while the lmmigrationsliteratur might have begun like that, it has moved quite a long way from that point.)The issues which the first part of the research wishes to address are as follows: What is meant by the. definition deutsche lmmigrationsliteratur: what are the historical perspectives and what is its current status in terms of, on the one hand, mainstream German literature and on the other hand, minority discourse. Why does this body of literature appear to be marginalised by German literary critics? Is the marginalisation linked to an unwillingness to take literature written by foreigners in German seriously, or is it as a result of a reluctance to confront the innovative and at times provocative use of the German language? Does this literature differ aesthetically from the mainstream German literature? The existence of a body of aesthetics is an area which to date has not been extensively researched nor documented, with the exception of work done mainly by AMODEO(1996), but also GRONEFELD (1996) and CHIELLINO (1995).

Bibliography: pages 186-197. / This dissertation aims to place Hans Grimm's uncompleted epic, Kaffernland, eine deutsche Sage (Kaffraria, a German Legend) within the context of the historical discourse of the nineteenth-century as it has been challenged by presentday critical historiography. Central to Grimm's text is the problematic relationship between fiction and historical reality. It reproduces historical documents and relies on the scientific aura of a bourgeois realist discourse to present itself as having reference to an extra-textual reality. These truth-claims are examined with Roland Barthes' structuralist techniques. I locate Grimm's text within an intertext dominated by the ideologies of German nationalism, colonial space and fate. His portrayal of mid-nineteenth century political questions is shown as a contradictory amalgam of partisanship for both the bourgeoisie and the small peasantry, of romantic anti-capitalism and pro-imperialism. The authoritarian narrative discourse affirms Britain's colonial subjugation of the Xhosa and negates Xhosa resistance. I focus on speaking positions in the text and the power of the colonizer's practice of designating and signifying. The rhetoric of the text is seen as a continuation of politics against Britain's exploitation of the British German Legion and of German missionary work in British Kaffraria. Grimm reproduces and embellishes the mythology of the German Legion as saviours of Kaffraria and Germany. He inverts history to re-make the negative record of the German Military Settlement. I show how mythic signs and a moralizing discourse stimulate an envisaged pre-World War I readership to recognize Kaffraria as a German colony and to reflect on how, in its own times, Germany can be regenerated through acquiring colonial space. The mythological discourse is also viewed in the light of the text's attempts to manifest the external factual reliability and inner truth of bourgeois realism. While Grimm deploys the literary conventions of the modern novel, as an epigone he draws on the forms of legend, saga and epic cultivated in the nineteenth century. He alludes to the Icelandic saga also to legitimize a claim to Xhosaland. This first book of the epic, presented as complete, attains a measure of cohesion through techniques of parallelism and contiguity. The text parallels the fate of the German and Xhosa nations and simultaneously signifies the Xhosa as destroyers of Xhosaland and the cattle-killing movement of 1856-57 as a diabolical plan. I see this mythologization of history as the ideological justification for the expropriation of the Xhosa and show that Grimm's colonialist fiction is in fact a colonizing discourse.

Bibliography: p. 127-139. / The thesis is an analysis of the definition of masculinity. Sociological and psychological studies have been referenced, in particular feminist, gender and current men's studies. The German director,·Rainer Werner Fassbinder's life and work are briefly illustrated to gain an insight into the main themes in his films. Lola (1981) is the film chosen for analysis of the representation of masculinity. The main characters, the power dynamics of the gaze and prostitution are the main themes of the analysis.