The lithium-ion battery is the most preferred choice for energy storage, for example, in electric vehicle batteries and electronic devices. These commonly utilized transition metal-based cathodes and graphite anodes. However, replacing the active materials with organic, redox-active materials is of great interest since these organic batteries are excelling in charging speed and cycling stability. Therefore, in the present thesis, the synthesis and characterization of potential organic electroactive materials, mainly polymers, are investigated. Concerning the structure of the polymers, linear polymers, three-dimensional / crosslinked polymers, as well as dendrimers, were chosen. The electroactive subunits include viologen, imide, triphenylamine, porphyrin, and ferrocene, either as homopolymer or copolymer, as well as active materials like graphene oxide (GO) or electrolytes. The characterization of the structures was performed by means of NMR, FTIR spectroscopy, and elemental analysis. The electrochemical properties of products were investigated by the cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique. Electrodes were prepared by drop-casting a solution of the polymers onto a current collector, and the (dis)charge performance was investigated. To enhance the conductivity of the layers, composites of the polymers with GO were prepared. Since the performance depends on the electrolyte composition, different types of solvents and salts were used and compared. The capacities in a thin film of pure polymers and dendrimers were much smaller than in the composite film with rGO. These performances are based on the molecular self-assembly of polymers and dendrimers on individual GO sheets yielding colloidal polymer/dendrimer@GO and efficient GO/rGO transformation electrocatalyzed by polymers and dendrimers. However, the stability and capacity of some polymers and dendrimers such as P2, P5, P6 and G2 were not optimal in this type of composite film. Moreover, the peak potential in the positive charge range assigned to the nitrogen centre of triphenylamine and porphyrin was found to decrease after the first scan, which is probably due to a dissolution of the film. Therefore different methods were used to composite polymer or dendrimer with GO such as reducing GO before mixing. As noticed that the redox behaviour of amine and ferrocene are reversible, but the stability of radical cation species is not stable in organic solvent after oxidation. Besides the preparation of electrodes by drop-casting, the layer-by-layer process was used by alternate dipping between cationic polymer solution and anionic GO or Poly(sodium p-styerenesulfonate) (PSS) solution. PSS acts as a counter ion for the polymer, which changes the moving species in the electrolyte from anion to cation. As noted that a large cation (TBA+) shows lower capacity compared to small cations (Li+, K+). Apart from the CV, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) was used to monitor layer growth.

Os Hidróxidos Duplos Lamelares (HDL) constituem uma classe de materiais que apresentam estrutura lamelar, consistindo de camadas positivamente carregadas de um hidróxido duplo, intercaladas com ânions hidratados no domínio interlamelar. Estes materiais têm recebido bastante atenção nos últimos tempos, devido ao baixo custo e relativa simplicidade de preparação, a possibilidade de combinação de uma variedade de cátions e ânions, aliados às propriedades que os HDL podem apresentar como: propriedades ácidas e básicas, \"efeito memória\", elevada área superficial, etc. Os HDL também podem ser utilizados em combinação com outros materiais, como por exemplo, óxido de grafeno, formando compósitos, com a finalidade melhorar as propriedades destes materiais. Podem ainda serem utilizados para a preparação de outros compósitos e/ou réplicas de carbono, por tratamento térmico de um HDL intercalado com um monômero, por exemplo, 4-vinil benzeno sulfonato (VBS), que pode ser polimerizado \"in situ\" e posteriormente carbonizado produzindo a réplica de carbono. A utilização dos materiais descritos anteriormente como suporte para imobilização de enzimas pode proporcionar uma plataforma alternativa para construção de dispositivos biossensores. O objetivo geral do trabalho foi a preparação e caracterização de materiais como HDL, Compósitos e/ou Réplicas de Carbono derivadas de HDL ou compósitos de HDL/ óxido de grafeno, como suporte da enzima Glicose Oxidase, estudando suas propriedades eletroquímicas, visando as potenciais aplicações destes materiais como biossensores. Para isto, foram preparados e caracterizados HDL de Mg-Al e Zn-Al intercalados com o ânion carbonato, pelo método de coprecipitação a pH variável; compósitos e/ou réplicas de carbono derivadas de um HDL precursor de Mg-Al-VBS, preparados, por coprecipitação a pH constante e compósitos de Mg-Al/óxido de grafeno que também foram preparados por coprecipitação a pH constante. Estes materiais foram utilizados na imobilização da enzima Glicose Oxidase (GOx), em eletrodos modificados e foi realizado o estudo eletroquímico dos mesmos e de suas potenciais aplicações. Foi possível observar que os HDL de Mg-Al-CO3, Zn-Al-CO3, Mg-Al-VBS e o compósito Mg-Al/óxido de grafeno exibiram boa cristalinidade, estabilidade térmica, e outras características como porosidade e superfícies positivamente carregadas, viabilizando a xiii utilização dos mesmos para a imobilização e estudo eletroquímico da enzima Glicose Oxidase. O estudo eletroquímico dos eletrodos modificados com estes materiais e a enzima Glicose Oxidase mostrou que os mesmos apresentam boa resposta catalítica frente ao substrato glicose e a importância destes materiais na atividade desta enzima. Os eletrodos modificados apresentaram boa sensibilidade, estabilidade à longo prazo e reprodutibilidade do método, podendo estes serem aplicados para a preparação de biossensores. / Layered Double Hydroxides (LDH) constitute a class of materials with a layered structure consisting of positively charged layers of a double hydroxide and hydrated anions intercalated in the interlayer domain. These materials have received much attention lately because they offer many advantages: they display acidic and basic properties, \"memory effect\", and high surface area; are inexpensive and easy to prepare; and can combine with a variety of cations and anions. Combination of LDH with materials like graphene oxide affords composites with improved properties as compared to the starting organic component. Heat treatment of LDH intercalated with a monomer such as 4-vinyl-benzene sulfonate (VBS), followed by \"in situ\" polymerization and carbonization, produces composites and/or carbon replica. The materials described above could be applied as support to immobilize enzymes and may provide an alternative platform for biosensor devices. In this study, we aimed to prepare and characterize LDH, composites and/or carbon replica derived from LDH, and LDH/graphene oxide composites and support glucose oxidase enzyme (GOx) on these matrixes. We investigated the electrochemical properties of the resulting materials and evaluated their potential application as biosensors. More specifically, we prepared and characterized Mg-Al and Zn-Al LDH systems intercalated with carbonate ion by the coprecipitation method; composites and/or carbon replica derived from a precursor LDH Mg-Al-VBS by coprecipitation at constant pH; and Mg-Al/graphene composites by coprecipitation at constant pH. We used these materials to immobilize GOx on modified electrodes and assessed the electrochemical activity and potential application of the immobilized enzyme as biosensor. Mg-Al-CO3, Zn-Al-CO3, Mg-Al-VBS LDH and Mg-Al/graphene oxide composite were crystalline, thermally stable, and porous and exhibited positively charged surface, which favored immobilization and electrochemical investigation of the GOx enzyme. The modified electrodes displayed good catalytic response to glucose, as substrate, and improved the activity of the enzyme as compared to GOx alone. Additionally, the modified electrodes were sensitive, stable, and reproducible, paving the way for their use in the design of biosensors.

Nature develops several materials with remarkable functional properties composed of comparatively simple base substances. Biological materials are often composites, which optime the conformation to their function. On the other hand, synthetic materials are designed a priori, structuring them according to the performance to be achieved. 3D printing manufacturing is the most direct method for specific component production and earmarks the sample with material and geometry designed ad-hoc for a defined purpose, starting from a biomimetic approach to functional structures. The technique has the advantage of being quick, accurate, and with a limited waste of materials. The sample printing occurs through the deposition of material layer by layer. Furthermore, the material is often a composite, which matches the characteristics of components with different geometry and properties, achieving better mechanical and physical performances. This thesis analyses the mechanics of natural and custom-made composites: the spider body and the manufacturing of metallic and non-metallic graphene composites. The spider body is investigated in different sections of the exoskeleton and specifically the fangs. The study involves the mechanical characterization of the single components by the nanoindentation technique, with a special focus on the hardness and Young's modulus. The experimental results were mapped, purposing to present an accurate comparison of the mechanical properties of the spider body. The different stiffness of components is due to the tuning of the same basic material (the cuticle, i.e. mainly composed of chitin) for achieving different mechanical functions, which have improved the animal adaptation to specific evolutive requirements. The synthetic composites, suitable for 3D printing fabrication, are metallic and non-metallic matrices combined with carbon-based fillers. Non-metallic graphene composites are multiscale compounds. Specifically, the material is a blend of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) matrix and different percentages of micro-carbon fibers (MCF). In the second step, nanoscale filler of carbon nanotubes (CNT) or graphene nanoplatelets (GNP) are added to the base mixture. The production process of composite materials followed a specific protocol for the optimal procedure and the machine parameters, as also foreseen in the literature. This method allowed the control over the percentages of the different materials to be adopted and ensured a homogeneous distribution of fillers in the plastic matrix. Multiscale compounds provide the basic materials for the extrusion of fused filaments, suitable for 3D printing of the samples. The composites were tested in the configuration of compression moulded sheets, as reference tests, and also in the corresponding 3D printed specimens. The addition of the micro-filler inside the ABS matrix caused a notable increment in stiffness and a slight increase in strength, with a significant reduction in deformation at the break. Concurrently, the addition of nanofillers was very effective in improving electrical conductivity compared to pure ABS and micro-composites, even at the lowest filler content. Composites with GNP as a nano-filler had a good impact on the stiffness of the materials, while the electrical conductivity of the composites is favoured by the presence of CNTs. Moreover, the extrusion of the filament and the print of fused filament fabrication led to the creation of voids within the structure, causing a significant loss of mechanical properties and a slight improvement in the electrical conductivity of the multiscale moulded composites. The final aim of this work is the identification of 3D-printed multiscale composites capable of the best matching of mechanical and electrical properties among the different compounds proposed. Since structures with metallic matrix and high mechanical performances are suitable for aerospace and automotive industry applications, metallic graphene composites are studied in the additive manufacturing sector. A comprehensive study of the mechanical and electrical properties of an innovative copper-graphene oxide composite (Cu-GO) was developed in collaboration with Fondazione E. Amaldi, in Rome. An extensive survey campaign on the working conditions was developed, leading to the definition of an optimal protocol of printing parameters for obtaining the samples with the highest density. The composite powders were prepared following two different routes to disperse the nanofiller into Cu matrix and, afterward, were processed by selective laser melting (SLM) technique. Analyses of the morphology, macroscopic and microscopic structure, and degree of oxidation of the printed samples were performed. Samples prepared followed the mechanical mixing procedure showed a better response to the 3D printing process in all tests. The mechanical characterization has instead provided a clear increase in the resistance of the material prepared with the ultrasonicated bath method, despite the greater porosity of specimens. The interesting comparison obtained between samples from different routes highlights the influence of powder preparation and working conditions on the printing results. We hope that the research could be useful to investigate in detail the potential applications suitable for composites in different technological fields and stimulate further comparative analysis.